Cyrus, possibly the greatest ruler in the world, was a prince both from his mother’s side and his father’s side.  His Persian father, King Cambyses (Kambujiya) son of King Cyrus (Kuroush) son of King Teispes (Chishpesh), was among the ruling descendants of the Persian kingdom.  His Median mother, Mandane (Mandana) daughter of King Astyages (Ashtiag or Azhidahak) son of King Cyaxares (Hovakhshatra) son of King Phraortes (Khshasthrita), was among the offspring of the royal family in the Median kingdom.  Therefore, Cyrus was a pure Iranian royal figure sharing both the Persian and Median bloodline.  When he conquered Media and defeated King Astyages, he gave mercy to all her royalty and made alliances under his rule.  Cyrus refused to take booty from conquered regions and also forbade his soldiers from doing so.  He formed a strong military with Persian and Median soldiers and, for the first time in Iranian history, united all of Iran under one rule.

From Archaemenes to Cyrus

The first Persian leader whose name has come down to us was Hakha-Manesh, known as Archaemenes to later Greek historians.  His name meant "wise mind," and the stories concerning him are pure legends, but he went down as the founder of the dynasty.  It is unclear when Archaemenes actually ruled, however we are confident that sometime after his rule the kingdom finally rested within the control of Teispes (675 – 640), the first known Archaemenid king through historic evidence.  Teispes divided his land between his two sons, Cyrus (Kuroush) and Ariaramnes (Ariaramna).  For the next ninety years there were two Persian kingdoms, both ruled by Achaemenids and paying tribute to Media.  On the border of Elam was the Persian kingdom Anshan, and on the eastern half was the Persian kingdom Persis (Parsumash or Parsa).  Around 600 BCE Cambyses succeeded his father Cyrus as king of Anshan.

Unfortunately Herodotus is the only historian who left us detailed records on how the Persian Empire was first initiated.  According to Herodotus, early in the reign of Astyages (Ažidahâk in Old Persian), the last Median king, strange things happened in his court at Ecbatana.  One night he had a dream in which his daughter Mandane (Mândânâ in Farsi) urinated and flooded all of Asia.  The Magi interpreted the dream as meaning that a son of Mandane would become king of Asia.  Therefore, Astyages decided that Mandane must not marry a Mede, for the child of such a union would automatically become the legitimate heir to his throne.  Instead he gave her to Cambyses of Anshan, since Princess Mandane was to marry a royal and the Persians were seen as weak and devoted to the Mede king.

After Mandane became pregnant with a son, the future Cyrus, Astyages had another dream in which vines sprang out of Mandane's loins and covered Asia.  The Magi again interpreted this dream to mean the offspring of Mandane would become king of Asia, and Astyages realized that his half-Median grandchild could still be dangerous.  He ordered his chief steward or Grand Vizier, Harpagus, to slay the newborn Cyrus in the wilderness.  But Harpagus, overcome by the child's beauty, could not bring himself to commit such a foul deed.  Instead, he told a mountain shepherd to do it, but the shepherd, whose wife had just given birth to a stillborn baby, had other ideas.  The shepherd took the infant prince home and raised him as his own son, and left the dead baby in Cyrus' royal clothing on the mountain for Harpagus to find and bury.

When Cyrus was ten years old, he and a group of boys played a game, where they made him "king," and he appointed each of the others to the jobs found in a real king's court.  One boy, the son of a Median noble, refused to do what Cyrus commanded, and Cyrus ordered him seized and beaten.  The boy went and complained to his father, who was so angry that he took the matter to Astyages.  Astyages sent for the young Cyrus and his herdsman "father," recognized Cyrus for a relative, and found out through a series of interviews what really happened.  At that point he decided he liked his Persian grandson, and called for the Magi again.  This time the Magi suggested that the prophecy had been fulfilled in an unexpected way; if Cyrus had already been "king" in a children's game, then maybe the predicted danger was past.  Astyages agreed and sent Cyrus off to his real parents in Anshan.  For the disobedience of Harpagus, however, Astyages devised a frightening punishment.  He summoned the son of Harpagus to the palace, had him killed and cooked up, and served him to his father at a banquet that night.  Harpagus did not know what he was eating until they lifted the lid from the final platter, whereupon he saw his son's head, hands and feet.

The above account of Herodotus indeed seems highly fable, however it may have provided a number of facts worthy of analysis.  Why Mandane was wed to a Persian of a weak kingdom over a Median is a question worthy of debate.  In ancient times, often to make peace or form an alliance kings would give their daughter’s hand in marriage.  For instance, in 612 BCE King Cyaxeres renewed the war against the Assyrians after his father, Phraortes, had been slain in battle.  Cyaxeres formed an alliance with the rebellious Babylonians, which were under Assyrian rule, and successfully defeated the Assyrians.  In result, Media gained strength in the region while Babylonia became an independent empire under her former governor, Nabopolassar.  Cyaxeres cemented an alliance with Nabopolassar of Babylon with a marriage.  The daughter of Cyaxeres, Amytis, married the son of Nabopolassar, Nebuchadnezzar.  Therefore, it may be concluded that Astyages also formed an alliance with the small kingdom of Persia by marrying his daughter Mandane to the Persian king Cambyses.  Furthermore, the marriage of Cambyses and Mandane would provide an end to the hostilities confronted and a rise in strength of the Persian kingdom.  Could Cyrus have been the grandchild of King Astyages?  It is indeed possible that the story of Cambyses’ Median marriage was invented to justify Cyrus’ rule over the Median kingdom.  We will read the name Harpagus later.

Reading along the writings of Herodotus, Cyrus grew up in Anshan toughened by the desert life, and received a basic Persian education, which included learning to ride a horse, to draw a bow, and to speak the truth.  In 559 BCE, he became king of Anshan.  Three years later he annexed Elam, a territory that the Babylonians claimed but was not occupied.  Nabonidus, who became king of Babylon in the same year, recognized Cyrus as heir to the Elamites, thus the Persian capital was relocated from Pasargadae, the hometown of the Achaemenids, to Susa, the old Elamite capital.  As Cyrus acted more like an independent monarch and less like a loyal vassal, Astyages saw everything he feared coming true.

Beginning of the Persian Empire

A cuneiform text from Nabonidus tells thus that a religious matter caused the final break between Cyrus and Astyages.  As we read along we see how Nabonidus took up massive expenses to rebuild ancient temples of the moon god, one of the biggest being the E.HUL.HUL in Harran.  The E.HUL.HUL was destroyed when the Assyrians made their last stand at Harran in 610 BCE, and Harran had been under Median control since then.  According to Nabonidus, the god Marduk appeared to him in a dream and ordered him to rebuild the E.HUL.HUL, but Nabonidus protested that he couldn't do this while the Medes controlled Harran.  Therefore Marduk replied:

"The Umman-manda (Medes) of whom you speak, they and their land and the kings who side with them no longer exist.  In the coming third year I shall make Cyrus, king of Anzan, their young slave, expel them.  With his few troops, he will disperse the widespread Umman-manda."

Accordingly, Nabonidus invited Cyrus to join him in an alliance.  This outraged Astyages, thus in 550 BCE, he summoned Cyrus to Ecbatana.  Cyrus responded that he would come sooner than the Median monarch had wished for.  A Median army was promptly sent to suppress the Persians.  Harpagus, general of the Median army, was impassive to act accordingly to the king’s order.  When the Medes and Persians met on the outskirts of Pasargadae, Harpagus and most of his troops turned against their king’s demands.  In the meantime, Persian tribes united under the leadership of Cyrus, establishing one of the most solidified armies of its region.

Herodotus.  Book 1, Chapter 101

the Persian nation contained a number of tribes [...]: the Pasargadae, Maraphii, and Maspii, upon which all the other tribes are dependent. Of these, the Pasargadae are the most distinguished; they contain the clan of the Achaemenids from which spring the Perseid kings. Other tribes are the Panthialaei, Derusiaei, Germanii, all of which are attached to the soil, the remainder -the Dai, Mardi, Dropici, Sagarti, being nomadic.

A unified army under the leadership of Cyrus advanced towards Ecbatana and seized Astyages in an encounter that deemed more as a coup than a battle.  The merciful Cyrus permitted the life of Astyages, however this marked the end of the Median Kingdom and the beginning of the Persian Empire.

According to Herodotus, however, Harpagus was looking for an opportunity to avenge himself.  Harpagus convinced Cyrus that the Medes were ready to revolt against their king, who had become a despot.  Therefore, Cyrus organized a federation of ten Persian tribes, while Astyages armed the Median army and appointed Harpagus as leader.  In a battle fought at Pasargadae, Harpagus and his soldiers switched allegiance.  The result was a unified army that invaded Ecbatana and seized Astyages.

Once again we read the name Harpagus.  How could a man, who by order of King Astyages received the severe punishment of eating his own son, be appointed as general of an army?  Clearly, the history presented by Herodotus is is highly contradictory.  However, Herodotus may be closing to a historic fact and that is Astyages was betrayed and his rule was overthrown in a coup orchestrated by Harpagus and Cyrus.  What actually caused Harpagus to betray Astyages is unclear.  The inscriptions on the Chronicle of Nabonidus write the following:

Sixth year (550/549): King Astyages [litt: Ištumegu] called up his troops and marched against Cyrus [Kuraš], king of Anšan, in order to meet him in battle. The army of Astyages revolted against him and in fetters they delivered him to Cyrus. Cyrus marched against the country Agamtanu [the Median capital Ecbatana, modern Hamadan]; the royal residence he seized; silver, gold, other valuables of the country Agamtanu he took as booty and brought to Anšan. The valuables of  [lacuna]

Taking over the loosely organized Median empire, Persia took over several subject countries: Armenia, Cappadocia, Pathia, Drangiana, and Aria.

The Conquer of Lydia

Wars between Lydia and Iran erupted around 546 BCE.  Herodotus, Greek historian, recalls that King Croesus of Lydia ignited the war by invading Archaemenid territory.  His target was Asia Minor, controlled by Iran.  According to Herodotus, King Croesus attempted to overthrow Cyrus and establish his own empire.  Prior to his invasion, King Croesus of Lydia sought the wise words of the Delphi Oracle, inquiring whether this war against the Persian king would be a wise choice.  The Oracle vaguely answered that if he were to wage war against the Persians, then a great empire will be destroyed.  King Croesus interpreted the great empire to be destroyed would be the Persian Empire, thus he invaded Iran.  He based his declaration of war as vengeance to the overthrow of King Astyages, his brother-in-law.

The war of Lydia against Iran turned into a great disaster for the invaders.  King Croesus suffered the grueling defeat.  King Cyrus entered Lydia and took control of Sardis, the capital of Lydia.  The Greek historian Xenophon recalls, after the capture of Sardis, the Persian troops remained obedient and respected the indigenous people while Chaldaean troops seized the opportunity of political turmoil and began to loot the city.  Prior to approaching the indigenous king, Cyrus ordered his troops to engage and forcibly halt the looting.

In 545 BCE, King Cyrus gave mercy to the defeated and surrendered King Croesus.  After the end of the war, Herodotus entails the conversation between King Cyrus and King Croesus as follows:

            Herodotus. Book 1, Chapter 87.

... Cyrus, convinced by this that Croesus was a good man and a favorite of heaven, asked him after he was taken off the pile, "Who it was that had persuaded him to lead an army into his country, and so become his foe rather than continue his friend?" To which Croesus made answer as follows: "What I did, o' king, was to your advantage and to my own loss. If there be blame, it rests with the god of the Greeks, who encouraged me to begin the war. No one is so foolish as to prefer war to peace, in which, instead of sons burying their fathers, fathers bury their sons. But the gods willed it so."

The story of the Delphi Oracle is quite famous in history, however what caused King Croesus to seek the wise words of the Oracle?  Did he have any ambitions of attacking Persia prior to seeking the Oracle?  Only three years after the fall of Astyages, the war between Lydia and Persia erupted.  Lydia was in fact an ally of Media, since Astyages was a brother-in-law to Croesus.  Furthermore, the expansion of Cyrus northward posed a great threat to the enormously wealthy Lydian king, thus Croesus decided to invade Persia as a pre-emptive attack.  In preparation for this war, Croesus allied himself with Amasis II (570 – 526) of Egypt and Nabonidus of Babylonia.  After thorough preparation for battle, Croesus then saw the Delphi Oracle and received a vague answer in which he interpreted as a declaration of war against the Persians (what he wanted to hear).  The cold winter caused the Lydian troops to lay rest while the Persians secretly continued their military operations, and thus the Persians prevailed victorious.

Consequently, Lydia, today Turkey, became part of the Archaemenid Empire, thus expanding the rule of Cyrus westward to the Aegean Sea.

The Conquer of Babylon

In the first half of the 6^th century BCE the Babylonian empire had reached its limits.  King Nebuchadnezzar II (630 – 562), son-in-law to a Median royalty, was the most powerful ruler of all Mesopotamia.  He is known for his conquests of Judah and Jerusalem, in addition to his monumental building within his capital of Babylon.  He spread his religion by force to all of those conquered.  Nebuchadnezzar took power at the age of 44.  He began his ruthless campaign by massacring those who did not accept his religion.  The Jewish were amongst the victims of his violent rampage.  In his second siege to Jerusalem, the city and Solomon’s Temple were laid waste and Judah became a Babylonian province.  After his death the Babylonian Empire declined dramatically.

Amel-Marduk (Evil Marodach) (562 – 560) succeeded his father, Nebuchadnezzar, and continued his father’s campaign of suppressing people of other religions and forcing them to worship the Babylonian God.  His reign only lasted two years and was assassinated in a coup by his brother-in-law Neriglissar.  Neriglissar (559 – 555), a little over three years in, too suffered defeat and was succeeded by Nabonidus, the last King of Babylon who was loyal to the Assyrians.

King Nabonidus (556 – 539) was not a relative of the previous Babylonian kings, however he was the son of Adad-Guppi, a high priestess of Sin, the Assyrian moon God.  King Nabonidus knew only Sin and the land of Harran.  Statues and religious monuments built for Babylon’s god Marduk were destroyed and burnt.  Instead, he ordered his people build statues and monuments out of stone and marble in devotion to the moon god.  In reality, King Nabonidus attempted to unify Mesopotamia under one religion, at the expense of the Babylonian culture, as the existence of multiple religions ignited bloody wars.  After years of suppression, the Marduk priests and the Babylonians became greatly dissatisfied with the King.  Following a battle in the land of present-day Jordan, King Nabonidus was diagnosed with an illness in which he was never able to recover from.  Meanwhile, the kingdom raised taxes to pay for the reconstruction of the Harran and its famous moon-god temple.  Revolts erupted as the ill King Nabonidus fled Babylon and transferred his power to his son and co-regent Belshazzar, who ruled on behalf of his father until the Persian invasion of October 539 BCE.  The merchant caravan roads became insecure, the farmers lost their lands and crops, economic stagnation set in, prices went up, and the empire was consistently deteriorating.  The focus of all wealth rested in the hands of a few bankers, slavers, and real estate speculates.  Everyday Babylon witnessed massive demonstrations and dissatisfaction.

Meanwhile, the expeditions and conquers of the Median kingdom and Asia Minor was complete and now King Cyrus became neighbors with Babylon.  Tidings of the Merciful Cyrus had widespread throughout all of Mesopotamia.  The oppressed people of Babylon called upon Cyrus to give salvation and remove the Semitic tyrants from power.

            XENOPHON, Cyropaedia [1.1.3]

... At all events, we know that people obeyed Cyrus willingly, although some of them were distant from him a journey of many days, and others of many months; others, although they had never seen him, and still others who knew well that they never should see him. Nevertheless they were all willing to be his subjects.

The Persians easily defeated the Babylonian army outside Babylon with the help of indigenous rebellions.  Following massive revolts and uprisings while suffering defeats to the Persian army, King Nabonidus knew the end was near and thus was forced back to Babylon while Cyrus and the Persian army established a blockade.  King Nabonidus this time attempted to compassion with the people and permitted the Marduk priests to practice their religion freely, however he was much too late and Cyrus entered Babylon with little to no resistance.  The overthrown King Nabonidus was arrested and imprisoned in Susa for the remainder of his treacherous life.

After defeating the Babylonian Empire, Cyrus as a result became the ruler of Syria, Lebanon and Palestine in addition to neighboring the Egyptians.

Cyrus the Great: According to Historic Evidence

Historic evidence has provided the ambition of Cyrus to be conquest in aim of establishing peace and security.  Cyrus acted compassionate and gave mercy to the surrendering rulers he overthrew.  He was so forgiving that when King Croesus violently invaded Iran and was defeated, Cyrus gave mercy to the foolish King and molded him into a loyal ally.  He granted the freedom of religion and rebuilt destroyed temples at the expense of the Persian army.  His compassion was completely foreign to the people, and for that the people loved him and proudly saw him as their own king.

            XENOPHON, Cyropaedia [8.8.1]

That Cyrus's empire was the greatest and most glorious of all the kingdoms in Asia--of that it may be its own witness. For it was bounded on the east by the Indian Ocean, on the north by the Black Sea, on the west by Cyprus and Egypt, and on the south by Ethiopia. And although it was of such magnitude, it was governed by the single will of Cyrus; and he honoured his subjects and cared for them as if they were his own children; and they, on their part, reverenced Cyrus as a father.

With his strong belief and devotion to Ahura Mazda, Cyrus the Great aimed to establish peace, security, and justice, and to eliminate repression.  Tidings of his glorious achievements spread rapidly throughout of the world.  He was very cautious and protective of the holy priests and temples, and ordered the reconstruction of destroyed temples at the expense of his government.  In recent discoveries of stone inscriptions from the Marduk priests, it is written that the Marduk God favored Cyrus and granted him the land of Babylon.  It is also written that the Marduk priests had prepared a warm welcome prior to King Cyrus entering Babylon.

In favor of the Babylonians, Cyrus acknowledged Marduk, the ancient Babylonian god, and crowned himself in the name of Marduk.  In fact, Cyrus, a believer in Ahura Mazda, also worshipped Marduk.

            The Cyrus cylinder

... Marduk, the great lord, moved the noble heart of the residents of Babylon to me, while I gave daily attention to his worship...

... Marduk, the great lord, rejoiced in my pious deeds, and graciously blessed me, Cyrus, the king who worships him, and Cambyses, my own son, and all my troops, while we, before him, joyously praised his exalted godhead...

By his acknowledgement and worship of Marduk, Cyrus had pleased the hearts of the Babylonians to an extent that the Babylonians had accepted Cyrus, a Persian, as their own king.  By the same token, Cyrus had acknowledged that all conquered people have equal rights to the Persians.  All were permitted to practice and worship their faith.

            Cyrus Charter of Human Rights

I am Cyrus, king of the world, great king, mighty king, king of Babylon, king of the land of Sumer and Akkad, king of the four quarters, son of Cambyses, great king, king of Anshan, grandson of Cyrus, great king, king of Anshan, descendant of Teispes, great king, king of Anshan, progeny of an unending royal line, whose rule Bel and Nabu cherish, whose kingship they desire for their hearts' pleasures.

When I, well-disposed, entered Babylon, I established the seat of government in the royal palace amidst jubilation and rejoicing. Marduk, the great God, caused the big-hearted inhabitants of Babylon to ... me. I sought daily to worship him. My numerous troops moved about undisturbed in the midst of Babylon.

I did not allow any to terrorize the land of Sumer and Akkad. I kept in view the needs of Babylon and all its sanctuaries to promote their well-being. The citizens of Babylon ... I lifted their unbecoming yoke. Their dilapidated dwellings I restored. I put an end to their misfortunes.

At my deeds Marduk, the great Lord, rejoiced, and to me, Cyrus, the king who worshipped, and to Cambyses, my son, the offspring of my loins, and to all my troops, he graciously gave his blessing, and in good spirit is before him we/glorified/exceedingly his high divinity.

All the kings who sat in the throne rooms, throughout the four quarters, from the Upper to the Lower Sea, those who dwelt in ... all the kings of the West Country who dwelt in tents, brought me their heavy tribute and kissed my feet in Babylon. From ... to the cities of Ashur and Susa, Agade, Eshnuna, the cities of Zamban, Meurnu, Der, as far as the region of the land of Gutium, the holy cities beyond the Tigris whose sanctuaries had been in ruins over a long period, the Gods whose abode is in the midst of them. I returned to the places and housed them in lasting abodes. I gathered together all their inhabitants and restored to them their dwellings. The Gods of Sumer and Akkad whom Nabonidus had, to the anger of the Lord of the Gods, brought into Babylon, I at the bidding of Marduk, the great Lord made to dwell in peace in their habitations, delightful abodes.

May all the gods whom I have placed within their sanctuaries address a daily prayer in my favour before Bel and Nabu, that my days may long, and may they say to Marduk my Lord, May Cyrus the King who reveres thee, and Cambyses his son .."

After conquering Babylon, Cyrus was quick to dispose of the local slavery system.  He freed the captive Jewish slaves and granted them to return to their homes in Jerusalem.  He took possession of the items that had been looted from the Solomon Temple in Jerusalem by the Babylonians and had them returned back with the people of Judah.  Furthermore, at the expense of his own government, he provided finances and materials for the rebuilding of Jerusalem.  The salvation of the enslaved and oppressed Jewish people serves as a token of example of how compassionate and loving Cyrus the Great was for all the people of the world.  The Bible recalls Cyrus as follows:

            Isaiah 44:28

‘Who says of Cyrus, ‘He is My Shepard, And he shall perform all My pleasure, Saying to Jerusalem, “You shall be built,” And to the temple, “Your foundation shall be laid.”’

Ezra 1:1-8

In the first year of Cyrus, king of Persia, in order to fulfill the word of the Lord spoken by Jeremiah, the Lord inspired King Cyrus of Persia to issue this proclamation throughout his kingdom, both by word of mouth and in writing: "Thus says Cyrus, king of Persia: "All the kingdoms of the earth the Lord, the God of heaven, has given to me, and he has also charged me to build him a house in Jerusalem, which is in Judah. Whoever, therefore, among you belongs to any part of his people, let him go up, and may his God be with him! Let everyone who has survived, in whatever place he may have dwelt, be assisted by the people of that place with silver, gold, and goods, together with free will offerings for the house of God in Jerusalem.' Then the family heads of Judah and Benjamin and the priests and Levites---everyone, that is, whom God had inspired to do so---prepared to go up to build the house of the Lord in Jerusalem. All their neighbors gave them help in every way, with silver, gold, goods, and cattle, and with many precious gifts besides all their free-will offerings. King Cyrus, too, had the utensils of the house of the Lord brought forth which Nebuchadnezzar had taken away from Jerusalem and placed in the house of his god. Cyrus, king of Persia, had them brought forth by the treasurer Mithredath, and counted out to Sheshbazzar, the prince of Judah

An interesting factor we read is that Cyrus did not gain personal benefits, nor did Persia gain greater than the expense input.  Though a conqueror, Cyrus played a role as a liberator and a savior to establish order and peace in the Middle East.  It is important to analyze the Middle Eastern society prior to her liberation set forth by Cyrus.  Before Cyrus, conquest was largely a strategic affair.  It entailed pre-emptive attacks against potential enemies and security of territory.  The conquered people were ultimately subjected to rape and murder, while national treasures were looted and stolen by invaders.

To truly understand the significance of Cyrus, it is necessary to examination the greatest and one of the most praised empires before Cyrus, the Assyrian Empire.  The Assyrians are remembered as a race of merciless warriors who caged vanquished kings and subjected them to public torture followed by execution.  About one hundred years before Cyrus, in 645 BCE, Ashurbanipal, the king of Assyra, conquered the capital city of Elam.  The Assyrians gave no mercy and plundered all of Elam’s treasures.  Gold and silvers, which were presented to Elam by Babylon as a sign of unity, along with statues, treasures, shrines, gems and jewelries were stolen from Elamites and transferred over to Nineveh, the capital of Assyria.  In addition to robbery and massacre, the Assyrians unearthed the bones and corpses of Elamite kings and hauled them to Nineveh.

            Ezekiel 32:24-25

There is Elam and all her multitude round about her grave, all of them slain, fallen by the sword, which are gone down uncircumcised into the nether parts of the earth, which caused their terror in the land of the living; yet have they borne their shame with them that go down to the pit.

They have set her a bed in the midst of the slain with all her multitude: her graves are round about him: all of them uncircumcised, slain by the sword: though their terror was caused in the land of the living, yet have they borne their shame with them that go down to the pit: he is put in the midst of them that be slain.

Tanutamon (Teuman in Elam), the king of Elam, was captured by Ashurbanipal and brought to Assyria where he was beheaded.  Ashurbanipal then ordered the chopped head of the Elamite king to be mounted at the top of a pillar of his palace in public before the people.  Shortly after, it was hanged from the gate of Nineveh until it disintegrated.  Ashurbanipal had finally become proudly satisfied with his victory when he and the Assyrian army sowed the land of Elam with salt and thrones.

In contrast to the history of Assyrians, let us examine the history of Cyrus through the recitation of Xenophon.  In the Cyropaedia, Xenophon writes an important conflict between the Armenians and the Chaldaeans.  The narration follows that Cyrus sought to establish a strategic fort in the mountainous borders of Persia.  They discovered the Armenians offensively objecting to the occupation of Chaldaeans in the high mountains of Armenia, which were deserted and uncultivated as a result of war.  Cyrus thus gathered an assembly of Persians, Medians and Armenians to decide the fate of the occupying Chaldaeans.  It was certain that the Armenians were not strong enough to sustain the Chaldaeans, however they would provide as a decoy for the invading Persian army.  The Chaldaeans, pre-occupied in a battle with the Armenians, were forced down the high mountains by the Persian army with little left behind.  Those Chaldaeans who failed to flee were summoned before Cyrus.  Cyrus said thus:

            XENOPHON, Cyropaedia [3.2.13]

“Now I am going to let you who have been captured go home and consult with the rest of the Chaldaeans whether you wish to have war with us or to be our friends.  And if you choose war, do not come this way again without weapons, if you are wise; but if you decide that you desire peace, come without arms.  I shall see to it that you have no cause to complain, if you become our friends.”

Similar to the fate of the Jews under the invading Babylonians, the Chaldaeans may have been captured, relocated and drawn into slavery.  These Chaldaeans were not even held as prisoners of war.  Instead, they were ordered to return to their people with a request to an open dialogue.  Cyrus held no desire to make war with the troublesome Chaldaeans, however he desired to make peace between the Armenians and Chaldaeans so that security and stability may be restored in the region.  The Chaldaeans thus peacefully returned to Cyrus and opened a dialogue.  The Chaldaeans pleaded for the fertile Armenian lands, as the Chaldaeans lands were not fertile for cultivation.  Cyrus thus proposed the following solution:

            XENOPHON, Cyropaedia [3.2.18]

… “Well then,” said Cyrus, “would you avail yourselves of the permission to till as much Armenian land as you wish on condition that you paid in full just as much rental as other tenants in Armenia do?”  “Yes,” said the Chaldaeans, “if we could be sure of not being molested.”

            XENOPHON, Cyropaedia [3.2.19]

“Tell me, King of Armenia,” said he, “would you be willing that land of yours which now lies uncultivated should be cultivated, if those who cultivate it would pay you the usual rental?”  The Armenian answered that he would give a great deal to have it so; for in this way revenues would be greatly increased.

The Armenians and Chaldaeans peacefully settled the dispute regarding the fertile Armenian lands, however there remained the question of who would control of the high mountains.  Neither side were willing to have their opponents dominate the high mountains as they saw this rightfully as a threat to their national security.  Cyrus concluded this agreement as follows:

            XENOPHON, Cyropaedia [3.2.22]

“This then,” said Cyrus, “is what I shall do; I shall not give permission of the heights to either of you, but we shall keep a garrison there ourselves; and if either of you does wrong, we shall side with the injured party.”

Cyrus therefore successfully fortified the territory and maintained peace and stability in the region.  It is very interesting to see here that Cyrus did not intervene in this matter until the Armenians voiced an objection before him.  Cyrus thus heard to the Armenian account and requested an open dialogue with the Chaldaeans.  In other words, rather than ousting the occupying Chaldaeans from Armenian territory, Cyrus first wished to hear the Chaldaean account before waging an unnecessary war.  Finally, through dialogue and negotiation with Cyrus as the mediator the matter was settled peacefully without any bloodshed.

After the conquer of Babylon, Cyrus returned to his homeland of Persia and ordered the building of a palace in Pasargadae, his original home.  During the time of this construction, Cyrus embarked a war against the nomadic Massaget tribes that lived to the north of Parthia.  It is at some point in this war that Cyrus receives an arrow that ends his legendary life.  His body was brought back in full honor to his unfinished palace and was buried in a tomb that has well stood the test of time, showing us the glory of the first great emperor.

Truly the remarkable successes of Cyrus the Great played an enormous impact in the world.  He ruled the greatest empire of all time and wrote the first ever declaration of human rights in history.