The Acceptance of Homosexuality among Native American Cultures
A Research Paper by George Neptune
Today, homosexuality is one of the most controversial issues in the United States. Some believe that homosexuals should not be treated differently than anyone else, while others believe that it is a sin and an abomination. Some go to the extremes of hate crimes and even murder to try and stop homosexuality. Homosexuality is viewed differently in all parts of the world. For example, in ancient Greece, homosexuality was considered normal, and Christians interpret it as a sin and believe that all who practice it shall be punished. However, homosexuality was accepted, encouraged, and even honored in many Native American cultures.
The Berdache
There are many alternative terms for the word 'homosexual,' some used specifically to define Native American homosexuals. Among these many terms, the one settled on by anthropologists is 'berdache.' Berdache, a version of the French bardaje, originated from the Arabic and Persian word for 'slave' or 'kept boy,' bardaj ( The Zuni Man-woman, Roscoe, 5). Webster's Dictionary defines 'berdache' as: "an American Indian transvestite assuming more or less permanently the dress, social status, and role of a woman." This term, however, is inaccurate. Berdaches did things that women did not, and vice versa.
There are several aspects of berdachism that differ from the standard roles of women. In the first place, even though berdaches remain around the home and perform women's work, they are not much involved in infant care because they cannot breastfeed. Berdaches may be domestic, but it is economic involvement in home production rather than child care. They reserve their attention for older children and youths, in their capacity as teachers. Even when they adopt children, it is evidently older children. They are different from women, who spend much of their young adult years as nursing mothers of small children (Williams, 67).
Evidently, the role of the berdache shows that the term is inaccurate. There are many other terms used to describe the berdache, most of which are also inaccurate.
Another term commonly used to describe homosexual Native Americans is 'transvestite.' A transvestite, a term most commonly used to describe males, is a person who dresses and acts as a person of the opposite gender. Among different tribes, a man would wear women's clothing, even if he were not a berdache, for different reasons.
A few Midwestern tribes forced some men who behaved cowardly in battle to wear women's clothing as a mark of disgrace. These instances were not spiritually derived, and were not seen to be a reflection of the basic character of the man. In the Indian view this kind of transvestism had no relationship to berdachism (Williams, 71).
This type of transvestism shows that the term 'transvestite' was also inaccurate in describing the people known as berdaches.
Many tribes viewed the berdache people as being 'halfman-halfwoman' (Lang, 77), a term which is considered synonymous with this description is 'hermaphrodite,' meaning a person with both male and female sex organs. A berdache, however, was not a hermaphrodite.
An elderly Lakota shaman typicaly defined winkte [Lakota word for berdache] as "a halfman-halfwoman; a man who acts like a woman. he does not have breasts or female genitals, but is a hermaphrodite. It is his nature. He was born that way." This comment seems contradictory, in that it implies winktes do not have female sexual organs but are hermaphrodites. Because the term means different things to Indians than it does to whites, hermaphrodite is not a useful word (Williams, 77).
The Native American definition of 'hermaphrodite' differs from that of the European definition. This difference in definition shows how the term 'hermaphrodite' is another inappropriate term for the berdache people.
Among all of the alternative terms for 'berdache,' 'transexual' is probably one of the most defective. Transexualism, a person of one gender assuming the identity of another, is based on the idea that there are only two opposite genders (Lang, 80). Many Native American cultures believe that there are at least six: men, women, not-men (women berdaches), not-women (male berdaches), gays, and lesbians (Brown, 6).
However, while berdaches certainly do women's work and are nonmasculine in character, their social role is not the same as that of women's. In terms of their physical body, lack of involvement with nursing infants, special roles in warfare, participation in dances, status as Go-Betweens for women and men, variable dress, and ability to abandon berdache status, these males need to be seen as something other than the institutional equivalents of females (Williams, 80).
The term 'transsexual' is obviously incorrect because of cultural beliefs. Perhaps the only appropriate names for the berdache people are the names used to describe them by the tribes to which they belonged.
All tribes who held the berdache tradition held different names for the berdache people. The Navajo used the word nadle, which meant "changing one," and the Zuni used lhamana, a name derived from a mythological spirit (Williams, 18).
In the story a kachina spirit called ko'lhamana was captured by the enemy spirits and transformed in the process. This transformed spirit became a mediator between two sides, using his peacemaking skills to merge the differing lifestyles of hunters and farmers. In the ceremony, a dramatic reenactment of the myth, the part of the transformed ko'lhamana is performed by a berdache. The Zuni word for berdache is lhamana, denoting its closeness to the spiritual mediator who brought hunting and farming together (Williams, 18).
The tribal names used to describe the berdache people are, perhaps, the only names which describe the important roles that they played in their cultures.
The Gift of Two Spirits
Perhaps the reason that the berdache people were honored in so many different tribes is because, in many cultures, berdaches were given a gift from the creator of having two spirits. The spirit of a man and the spirit of a woman were present inside their bodies, as opposed to having only one. It was believed that Two Spirited people could understand and help solve problems that others could not, such as problems between men and women. Having two spirits allowed them to see the world from two perspectives at the same time (Perkins).
A basic Native American belief is that everything in the universe is related, but also has polarities, such as sky and earth, fire and water, plant and animal, and man and woman. Between these polarities is a mediator, whose role is to hold them together and prevent the universe from falling apart. Two Spirited people are the mediators between men and women. A Two Spirited person is not one or the other, but the harmonious combination of both (Williams, 21). The integration of these two polarities gave Two Spirited people, who are very sensitive to subtle changes in energy, the ability to find balance under any circumstances, and also allowed them to feel the truth behind all situations (Perkins). Because of their natural sense of balance and harmony, Two Spirited people were believed to make particularly effective shamans, medicine men, healers, and tribal leaders (Williams, 33). The abilities of the Two Spirited people made them celebrated throughout Native American tribes.
The Celebration of Two Spirits
Several tribes had rituals that determined whether or not a child had been given the gift of Two Spirits. In the Papago tribe, if parents noticed a child was more interested in women's work than men's work, a large circle of brush was assembled. The tools of a man -a bow and quiver of arrows- and the tools of a woman -usually a basket- were placed in the center. The child was then led into the circle and was told to bring one of the objects out of the circle. The brush was then set on fire, and, if the child brought out the basket, he would be raised in the ways of a Two Spirited person ("The Two-Spirited Tradition"). The Mojave also had a ritual that determined the child's upbringing. Between the ages of nine and twelve, and without the child's knowledge, a singing circle would be arranged with the entire tribe. The child was then led into the middle of the circle, and, if he remained, The Singer, who was hidden among the crowd, would start to sing. If the child was not Two Spirited, he would refuse to dance. But if he was given the gift of Two Spirits he would begin to dance in the fashion of a woman. The Mojave believed that he could not help it, and, after the fourth song was sung, he would be declared as Two Spirited. He would be raised in the ways of men, women, and other Two Spirited people and healers ("The Two-Spirited Tradition"). There were also many other rituals that were directly related to Two Spirited people.
Some tribes also had rituals that honored Two Spirited people. In the sacred Sun Dance of the Crow tribe, for example, the tree used is traditionally cut down by a Two Spirited person ("What your dreams make you"). The Sauk and Fox tribes also had dances for the Two Spirited people who had earned the privilege of being publicly honored. Every year, a feast was given to the aya'kwa (Sauk and Fox term for Two Spirited people), and many warriors held hands with him in the dance. He was first teased through pretend love making, and because these men had all been sexual partners of the aya'kwa, he undoubtedly teased them through intimate knowledge gained through sexual experiences with them. Gifts of women's clothing were then given to show the appreciation of the aya'kwa (Living the Spirit, Roscoe, 53).
Other ceremonies, such as ritual dances and naming ceremonies, were often performed by Two Spirited people. If a naming ceremony was performed by a Two Spirited person, it was believed that it would bring luck and fortune to the child.
The secret name a winkte gave to a child was believed to be especially powerful and effective... to bring its bearer luck and long life. In the old days it was worth a fine horse—at the least. The winkte told me that these names are very sexy, even funny, very outspoken names. You don't let a stranger know them; he would kid you about it. Having a winkte name could make a man famous. Sitting Bull, Black Elk, even Crazy Horse had secret winkte names (Williams, 38).
Rituals, such as these, that honored Two Spirited people show how important these people were in the everyday lives of Native Americans.
The Two Spirited Tradition among Specific Tribes.
Among the Dakota Santee tribe, young boys were observed from infancy for signs of behavior that favored women's crafts, as opposed to the standard activities considered normal for young boys. Later on in the boy's childhood, he may have experienced dreams or visions that either, or denied, his early patterns of gender lifestyle practices. These dreams were considered granted permission from the Creator to practice the female arts. The dreams were also believed to bestow special powers on the child. Despite the beliefs of many other tribes, the Dakota Santee were not as accepting of homosexuality.
Once this series of events had been experienced by a Dakota Santee youth, there followed what has been referred to as a tribal performance. Dakota taboos prevent relatives from killing one of their own family, therefore, these ceremonies were enacted to proclaim a social death of the individual. This performance served as a public declaration that a young man had chosen not to accept either the tribally defined male role or its assigned responsibilities. From this point on he was to be considered dead to all of his family members, both sanguine and fictive, and he could no longer interact socially with members of his tribe or family... the young man was banished from the camp or village where he had spent his childhood... abandoned to find acceptance and tolerance among strangers (Brown, 24).
This banishment was considered necessary in order to maintain a social equilibrium so that a hierarchy would not be formed (Brown, 24). The Dakota Santee was among the few that did not accept it's Two Spirited people. A very similar tribe, the Lakota, differed greatly from the Dakota Santee views of Two Spirited people.
The Lakota tribe considered Two Spirited people to be an important part of society. A Two Spirited Lakota lived as a member of a higher social class as well as a very prestigious life. They, like the Dakota Santee, believed that the Two Spirited person was given a gift by the creator, as well as permission to practice the female way of life. The Lakota called Two Spirited people two names: 'wicasa wakan,' which meant 'sacred man,' and winkte. The wicasa wakan were divided into four categories: healers, performers, wizards, and those who followed the female way of life. This classification depended on the extent of the abilities of the winkte (Brown, 24). This honor of the Two Spirited person was also shown among many other tribes, including the Navajo.
The Navajo, who called the Two Spirited people nadle, believed that the entire existence of humanity depended on the nadle. Even in the creation story in which the world was created, the nadle played an important role.
The first people were First Man and First Woman, who were created equally and at the same time. The first two worlds that they lived in were bleak and unhappy, so they escaped to the third world. In the third world lived two twins, Turquoise Boy and White Shell Girl, who were the first berdaches. In the Navajo language the word for berdache is nadle, which means "changing one" or "one who is transformed..." They continued living happily in the third world, until one day a great flood began. the people ran to the highest mountaintop, but the water kept rising and they all feared they would be drowned. But just in time, the ever-inventive Turquoise Boy found a large reed. They climbed upward inside the tall hollow reed, and came out at the top into the fourth world. From there, White Shell Girl brought another reed, and they climbed again into the fifth world, which is the present world of the Navajos (Williams, 20).
This creation story shows how important the nadle was to the Navajo. The nadle were honored, and given many rights, including being able to marry non-nadle men.
In a marriage between a man and a berdache, the berdache supplies women's work and a network of kin, like any other wife... A berdache wife offered the same economic advantages of any other polygynous marriage. while it is true that a berdache cannot reproduce, many of the reports of such marriages mention that the husband already had children, either through a previous marriage or by taking a berdache as a second or third wife. Bit with adoption being so commonly accepted, children may even be gained by the berdache. Thus, the same advantages of heterosexual marriage also accrue to the man who marries a berdache (Williams, 112).
The nadle was one of the most important people in the Navajo tribe. The allowance of a nadle to marry a non-nadle man was also present among the Zuni tribe.
For a Zuni lhamana, the decision to become a lhamana was made by the boy during childhood based on the his preference of women's work over men's work. When the boy announced that he wanted to become a lhamana, it simply meant that he had a different "life road" than others. Zuni families adapted accordingly, and the child would have family support, adequate education and training, a certain place among the community, adult role models, and the possibility of achieving prestige and respect. The boy's decision became final at puberty, when he adopted full female dress. Lhamana were hard workers, for they did the hardest work of the women as well as men's work (The Zuni Man-Woman, Roscoe, 25). Lhamana boys went through the same initiations into manhood that all of the other boys did. Lhamana, however, did not finish along with the others, and was considered as an 'unfinished man.'
With this in mind, ascertaining the initiations that lhamanas received holds the key to understanding their gender status. According to Parsons, boys with berdache inclinations underwent the fist male initiation "just like other boys," even if they had already been identified by themselves and others as berdaches. But they did not receive the second male initiation. In other words, the lhamana was an "unfinished" male. because he received the boys' first initiation, he could participate in some male activities, like kachina dancing, men's crafts work, and even farming, but not in those activities that were the theme of the boys' second initiation: warfare and hunting (The Zuni Man-Woman, Roscoe, 144).
A lhamana was not fully accepted as a woman either, for the same reason that he was not accepted as a full male.
At the same time, We'wha [a famous Zuni lhamana] could not undergo the rites of passage specific to women because those depended on biological functions he did not possess. Even so, it is likely that he learned a certain amount of women's lore and ritual and joined female members of his household when they observed domestic rites. And since he did not give birth he was not subject to the taboos that required the periodic separation of women from men. Thus, he could move freely in both male and female social worlds. The lhamana was, in functional terms, a nonwarrior or nonaggressive male, a crafts specialist rather than a primary producer, an individual who combined elements of male and female social, economic, and religious roles (The Zuni Man-Woman, Roscoe, 145).
The acceptance of Two Spirited people among the Zuni, Navajo, Lakota, and many other tribes is evident. Why then, in our present day culture, are homosexuals considered as abnormal, even among Native American Tribes?
The European Influence
The European settlement drove many traditions, especially that of Two Spirited people, underground ("Two-Spirited People"). The priests who founded the California missions found many Two Spirited people in many tribes, and tried to suppress it as best they could.
They kept him there three days, making him sweep the plaza, but giving him plenty to eat. But he remained very cast down and ashamed. After he had been warned that it was not right for him to go about dressed as a woman and much less thrust himself in with them, as it was presumed that he was sinning with them, they let him go. He immediately left the mission and never came back to it, but from the converts it was learned that he was still in the villages of the gentiles and going about as before, dressed as a woman (Living the Spirit, Roscoe, 51).
Because of the shame inflicted by Europeans, people who were once honored are now shamed, cast out of their families, beaten, and even, in the most extreme cases, killed.
The two spirited tradition, along with many other traditions are just now being brought back into the Native American cultures. According to many Native American prophets, the culture of all Native American tribes will slip away. The only people who can bring the traditions and cultures back, are the children of the Seventh Generation. It is now up to the Seventh generation to bring back what was lost because of European influence. It is our responsibility to bring back traditional ceremonies, sweats, celebrations, marriages, and the tradition of the Two Spirited people, or it will be lost forever (Native American Elders).
Homosexuality was accepted among many Native American tribes, and those who were Two Spirited were accepted and honored. Now, however, because of the European influence, homosexuals are considered sinners, abnormalities, and abominations. Thankfully, the Two Spirited tradition is now being integrated back among many tribes, and these people are, once again, being given the respect from their people that they deserve.
Works Cited
Brown, L. B. (1997) Two spirited people: American Indian lesbian women and gay men.
University of New Mexico press.
Roscoe, W. (1988) Living the spirit: a gay American Indian anthology. St. Martin's Press.
Roscoe, W. (1992) The Zuni man-woman. University of New Mexico Press.
Williams, W. L. (1992) The spirit and the flesh: sexual diversity in American Indian culture. Beacon Press.
Perkins, T. Homosexuality: Two-Spirit People. Retrieved February 22nd, 2005 from the website:
http://www.tperkins.com/spiritual/two_spirit_people.html
