some old schoolwork that i really don't want to keep but i don't know what to do with it. doesn't it seem a waste to do all that work and then just throw it out?

indexed by general subject and then course.

• English
• Math
• Science
• Social Studies
• College Application

• AP English Literature
• AP English Language

• IB Math Methods
• AP Calculus BC

• Earth Space

• AP Government
• AP U.S./V.A. History

• Modern Poetry Project
• On How To Tame A Wild Tongue
• "This I Believe" Essay 1
• "This I Believe" Essay 2

• On Pilate's Singing, from Song of Solomon
• Analysis: Book II Chapter 4 of Gulliver's Travels
• College-Style Essay
• AP Poetry Project ~ My Poetry Book
• AP In-Class Essay
• Gulliver's Travels Book I Chapter 4 Analysis
• Pilate, The Individual, from Song of Solomon, written with Atticus H. and Nowell D.
• Social Satire Essay

• Second Internal Assessment

• Calculus Outline 1
• Calculus Outline 2
• Outline of Environmental Project
• On the Sanity of Enviro-nuts

Back to Mathematics

• Project on the Autobiography of Malcolm X

Back to Social Studies

• Entitlement Programs: Children Versus The Elderly
• Judiciary Branch Outline
• On Interest Groups
• On Minor Political Parties
• Vocabulary
• Policy Study: On The Conservation of Sea Turtles Through Laws on Shrimp Imports

Back to Social Studies

• Photos *click on "Interesting Scientific Scale Models" album

Back to Science

 I was pretty distracted when I should have been applying to college, and I ended up applying to one school, VCU, at the last minute (the counciling dept. couldn't process my late applications to anywhere else). These funny little pieces strike me as perfect for some sort of whimsical scrapbook... no offense intended towards the prompts, only my rushed, pitiful (and ultimately quirky) responses...

• Brief Personal Statement
• Essay on "Education and Life"

Back to High School

Section 2

Night Journey

            In a wild description of harsh and rugged terrain, Roethke captures a moody landscape from inside a moving train, not divulging until the end that this ruthless terrain means so much to him. I think the poem was very physically forceful until the end, which clarifies it all and makes it likeable. I did, however, also enjoy some of the vivid imagery: “We rush into the rain / That rattles double glass” for example.

Mirror

            This poem is rather confusing because it is comprised of several extended metaphors. The speaker is both the reflective surface and that which is reflected at one point, which, in a way, could be an assumption of truth, aiding the detached and yet narrowly descriptive style of the poem.

Mushrooms

            Again, Plath is almost cold in this poem, not for lack of excitement but for how flatly descriptive she is. Again she is an object, though now a living and growing one. You can see this in the way she describes life, almost revoltingly, as a fungus.

Bean Eaters

            I have read this poem many times: it is one of my favorites. It is like “Mushrooms” and “Mirror” in that it is really based on observation, but it does not make me uncomfortable in the same way. The observer is outside the event, and the event is not an ugly close-up of vanity or a jolting close-up of fungi. They are poor but they have everything in their memories, and I like them, especially because I see them in several familiar people.

In Honor of My Father

            This poem has an almost singsong feel without being irritating. It is funny how the beginning has a perfect rhythm and rhyme and then the structure changes somewhat. The feelings expressed, however, do not change, and again, they are very heartfelt.

Elsewhere

            This poem is extremely moving, and I do not know what to say. I guess that I should note that I believe people should think about the world larger than here every once in a while. I don’t understand the last stanza, either… what was he trying to say?

Ars Poetica

            This is a sweet and simple poem. I like it because it is declaring that the author is completely content to be herself. It is also completely clean and clear, free of subliminal messages.

Testimonial

            Dove is apparently talking about her youth, but in a very interesting way. It is almost self-centered, thinking that her birth was the beginning of everything. Then again, that is okay because when you are young it is as if the universe is just beginning.

Visions

            I like how this poem is both dreamy and serious. Many of these visions could not have actually taken place but they are all symbolic and meaningful. It is also overwhelmingly sad for some reason (besides just talking about death).

Medusa

            This poem is frightening because Medusa is so sad. There is nobody who can understand her, either, which makes it far worse.

Section 3

Night Journey

            1. Having the iron bridges made of lace; having the trees rush up suddenly; having the mist in the mountains spread flat as a handkerchief on your knees.

            2. The sudden change of the beacon “from dark to blazing bright;” the sound of the train rumbling through the ravines as if it were thunder; the “gullies washed with light” as if the light were watery, illusive; the image of mist getting deeper, growing thicker, on the windowpane; the feeling of rushing towards the rain; the sound of glass rattling; the jolt of wheels shaking.

            3. He states clearly that he loves this rocky land in line 27, the last line. It is not as clear whether or not he likes the train, for the train is never redeemed in the poem. However, despite the jerky descriptions of it, I think Roethke must love the train too, for it is taking him places.

            4. West/rest; earth/berth; trees/knees; night/sight; lace/place; feel/steel; curve/nerve; bright/light; pane/rain; pass/glass; and shove/love are all the end rhymes in this poem. Words that have no rhyme are: mist, swing, ravines, stone, and night.

Mirror

            1. There are three speakers: first the quadrilateral mirror on the wall, then one who is reflected in this mirror, then a lake which reflects an agitated aging woman.

            2. The speaker claims to be impartial, a tool of truth. When saying that it is “the eye of a little god,” the speaker is implying not only that worship and respect due is paid but also that it is an object of intrinsic value, later hinting to have additional powers to disturb.

            3. Potentially, the candles and the moon, both very soft and gentle sources of light, conceal flaws which would be otherwise apparent.

            4. Perhaps it is an allusion to the bible: as Jonah was swallowed by “a terrible fish.” Anyway, it is a jarring phrase that evokes negative emotion that would otherwise have been overlooked or smothered by the detached nature of the speaker. For me, the image is especially personal, though I have a particular liking for fish. Therefore I think of a “terrible fish” as an otherwise even more horrid object.

            5. I would say Plath’s poem is really about how time consuming and how emotionally devouring vanity can be.

Mushrooms

            1. The speakers are mushrooms.

2. The speakers describe living, growing, and dying… as far as being eaten is concerned. They also portray exploding populations. By using personification, we are objectively put in the place of mushrooms to experience what they do.

3. They are saying that they will take over… and the simple fact that they plan on it seems to rule out the possibility that they are meek. They do let people eat them, but they also seem quite invasive. I felt a bit jerked when I read that, but I appreciated it. I love dichotomies.

4. I am forcibly reminded of the lectures a good number of my teachers have given on how the quiet intellectual (perhaps the butt of a number of cruel jokes) is the one who ends up being peoples’ boss. Intellectuals, however, are significantly more interesting than mushrooms.

5. I hear the same tone, almost one of recitation. It is a detached, logical tone, as I have said before. The statements are of the nature that really cannot be argued, and yet they are assembled in a way that would cleverly lead the reader to a specific notion or conclusion.

Bean Eaters

1. “their rented back room that / is full of beads and receipts and dolls and cloths, tobacco / crumbs, vases and fringes.” This tells you how they live and why, what they remember, and perhaps something of when and where they are from.

2. That, despite the setting and their obvious age, these people have not given up on life. They have had a good life and respect their memories.

3. Now that it is brought up, yes, I guess Brooks could be suggesting that they deserve more than they have… but I was always of a mind that she was saying that within themselves they had plenty, and that was good.

4. That it was a full, good life, despite inevitable awkward moments and poor decisions.

5. End rhymes: pair/affair/chipware/flatware; wood/good; day/away; two/who; twinges/fringes. Internal rhymes: lean/beans; old/yellow; mostly/good; beads/receipts; dolls/cloths. Brooks may have made the last sentence long for emphasis, to show the dragging of life towards the end. Perhaps she made it long solely to incorporate that very important inventory.

6. Poverty is very evident, but I am reminded of pacifist movements by the “beads” and “fringes,” perhaps even the tobacco. The tobacco crumbs also symbolize the influence of drugs on modern life. But beans as a staple and plain dishes also seem to be a thing of the long past. I don’t think she actually intended to pin a time on these people, though perhaps she was looking at a specific era.

In Honor of My Father

1. She cherishes his memory as a beacon of virtue.

2. His ability to tend the house has expired, and thus it has become dry in his absence (figuratively).

3. He is in the “better place” people are constantly discussing, or so she says. Her tone is sad and bitter and triumphant all at once, though… for it is evident that he was in a bad way before he died, and perhaps for all of his life, as it is evident she thinks life may have treated him unkindly, and yet he triumphs as an immortal spirit in a place that is as beautiful as the imagination.

4. She is saying that what was once an uncommon goodness (charity, private) has become an unrestricted show of uprightness, thanks to him.

5. I think the theme of this poem is loss… and perhaps the beauty that comes out of it. She has obviously lost her father but is able to create a splendid place for him to live, and delight in his fond memory.

6. Rhyme: tended/ended; replies/revives/strives; free/charity. Alliteration: light/lease; cramping/chamber’s/chill; strikes/strives; goodness/gentleness.

Elsewhere

1. “It is blue as peace. /Somewhere they’re tired of torture stories.” This reminds me of my ancestors, who were mainly fisherman, and were conscripted. “Somewhere there was a small harvest / of bodies in the truck” I do not want to visualize this, but people, cut down as wheat would be, because they are more useful that way. “somehow the foliage no longer looks like leaves but camouflage.” This reminds me of how far warfare has come in comparison with science, say, or literature.

2. Life is good here but we are not everywhere and we cannot ignore the violence: like knocking someone’s head open.  

3. I think the “cross bars” are prison cells… and the people you can see in them are empty because they have nothing and they are probably beyond the feeling that they are lucky to be alive.

4. The people in these really bad places are as numerous and unreal as the people in a phone book to an outside observer.

5. This is really strange, but I think Walcott is saying it is best not to feel for these people, which is exactly how I expected this poem not to end. To make a career out of conscience would be like getting paid for philanthropy, I guess, which, of course, people go for but it doesn’t really make sense to.

6. He keeps repeating “here,” “somewhere,” and “somewhere else.” These not only drill into my mind exactly what he says is going on and where, but they give me a sense that I really could not know what is happening. It makes me feel helpless.

7. I think Walcott (except for the last stanza? I’m not really sure what that one means) intended us to find pity in our hearts and feel how we are absolutely powerless to do anything about it. It is more just a statement of what is… and it is important to understand the violence that we do not see and do not want to.

Ars Poetica

1. I think she is referring to the crow as a scavenger, or perhaps just an ugly and unwanted bird. Poets are both, and she refers specifically to finding and glimpsing things.

2. She would never trade places with Venus because she is stuffy and overbooked and old. This statement shows that she values fresh air (figuratively) and new, creative things. She is also content with herself.

3. She has a literary revelation.

4. The theme of her poem is striving forward, never wallowing in stagnancy, and thus she glimpses perfection because she is still walking towards her destination.

5. Poetry should be fresh and exciting and emotional, not wordy and flowery and devoid of meaning.

Testimonial

1. Childhood.

2. Most likely a call to mature.

3. Perhaps, but that was not my impression. She could just be growing up… the world is a big, wonderful (and scary) place. That is enough to make anyone swoon.

4. I would think that she was both beautiful and dainty, while being very powerful and moody.

5. The tone is almost regretful… especially since the author obviously knows better now, and it seems as though (unfortunately) she has grown out of this part of her life.

6. That she committed herself to something (a job, perhaps).

7. That nobody decided which way she would go except for herself.

8. I think youth, probably (blissfully) wastefully spent.

9. Alliteration: swooned/spoonfuls/sorbet; caught/called; glance/gaze. Assonance: swooned/spoonfuls; caught/called; my/life.

Visions

1. Within the speaker’s dream, he walked with his father up to his father’s grave.

a. He says “my dead” because he is referring to his family and loved ones.

b. Cradling a child, taking very good care of something.

c. Absolutely… especially the part about “going up” which sort of clarifies the image.

2. Really, the speaker was just remembering his father.

            a. Perhaps because his heart is heavy in carrying them.

            b. I think it is important because he is explaining it… so there must be something more.

3. It is sort of referring to dwelling on beauty, and repetition.

            a. The book read again and again. Some things can never quite be understood.

            b. Perhaps sadness.

4. A tree might be life or growth, or perhaps connection, the flowers seem to mean respect (for the dead), and the book seems to mean interpretation, presumably of his visions.

5. The theme is probably that things may pass and you may heal but death is not something people can emotionally explain, and also, when somebody very special to you dies, you never really get over it.

Medusa

1. Medusa is speaking, but it is ironic because she is far from beautiful.

2. I think Medusa is bitter… especially when she recollects the people who loved her before.

3. She seems to dread the recollection of herself before she changed.

4. She threatens to turn God into stone. She must be pretty deeply depressed, and perhaps she thinks she can strike a bargain with God when he is caught in her trap.

5.Perseus will kill her.

6.It allows me to be far more empathetic. She’s really had it rough.

Section 4

            [Answers to Multiple-Choice & True/False are italicized.]

Night Journey

Multiple-Choice

1. How could you best describe Roethke’s style of poetry?

a. Cold and distant

b. Close and physical

c. Imaginative and cunning

d. Lackluster and routine

2. Which of the following lines clarifies the entire poem?

a. “And gullies washed with light.”

b. “While others take their rest.”

c. “I wake in every nerve.”

d. “To see the land I love.”

True/False

3. Roethke thinks the landscape is disinteresting. F

4. Most of the land that the train passes through can best be described as a “bleak wasted place.” F

5. Roethke describes physical discomfort in his poem. T

Essay

6. Discuss the difference between Roethke’s description of the train’s direction and Roethke’s description of the scenery and the weather.

7. How would you describe the poem’s atmosphere?

8. What causes Roethke to “wake in every nerve”?

9. List three potential benefits of contradicting a poem’s atmosphere in the last phrase.

10. Does Roethke’s scattered rhyming style match the feelings he is trying to convey in this poem? Why or why not?

Mirror

Multiple-Choice

1. Plath says “in me she has drowned a young girl.” What does this line actually mean?

a. She is getting old.

b. She is trying to destroy a part of herself.

c. She is concealing her past.

d. She is a murderous hag.

2. The idea of the speaker as “The eye of a little god” is restated in which of the following lines?

a. “I think it is a part of my heart.”

b. “those liars, the candles or the moon.”

c. “I am important to her.”

d. “Faces and darkness separate us over and over.”

True/False

3. Plath is being literal. F

4. Plath most likely thinks that wasting away in front of a mirror is a bad idea. T

5. “It is pink, with speckles” presumably describes a person’s face. T

Essay

6. Plath’s poem develops a truly innocent façade for the speaker. How do you think this relates to the point she meant to convey?

7. Why is it so important that the speaker changes character halfway through the poem?

Mushrooms

Multiple-Choice

1. “We are shelves, we are / Tables” can best be translated to mean:

a. We can carry heavy things for long periods of time.

b. We support people physically.

c. We will soon be made into building materials.

d. We are an unnoticed base of society.

2. “So many of us!” is most likely repeated for:

a. rhythmic value.

b. emphasis.

c. allusion to the bible.

d. assonance.

True/False

3. “Bland-mannered” can be taken to mean blatantly rude. F

4. Plath is trying to say something about people, using an analogy of mushrooms and gardens. T

5. The personification displayed in this poem is mainly whimsical. F

Essay

6. Relate the arguments in this poem to the positions of Americans on immigration, especially recently.

Bean Eaters

Multiple-Choice

1. The tone of this poem is –

a. Aloof and uncaring

b. Moody and flowing

c. Calm and resigned

d. Collected and down-to-earth

2. “Mostly Good” was probably capitalized…

a. because it best describes this couple.

b. because it seems too commonplace a phrase to be used.

c. because they were partially bad.

d. because Brooks thought it was too unrealistic otherwise.

True/False

3. Brooks intends for this couple to seem tired and done with life. F

4. Brooks intends for this couple to seem imaginary. F

5. Brooks doesn’t really place emphasis on this couple’s interaction. T

Essay

6. Describe how you think Brooks’ tone reflects her intentions as far as the average reader is concerned.

In Honor of My Father

Multiple-Choice

1. What is the tone of this piece?

a. Angry

b. Melancholy

c. Hopeful

d. Regretful

2.Brooks probably saw her father mostly as a -

a. role model

b. gentlemen

c. politician

d. hard worker

True/False

3. This piece has a definite rhythm which is broken on occasion. T

4. There are no examples of perfect rhyme in this piece. F

5. Brooks describes in depth what her father has done for the world. T

Essay

6. Quite a few lucky people have not lost their fathers yet. How do you think you would react if you did/ how did you react when you did?

Elsewhere

Multiple-Choice

1. This piece strives to

a. move you to action

b. understand what is happening

c. dictate how you run your lives

d. entice you to come to a third-world country

2. What is the best translation of “their stares fog into oblivion

thinly”?

a. they become vapor

b. they go unnoticed

c. they leave quickly

d. they are walking backwards

True/False

3. This piece was intended to evoke strong emotions. T

4. Walcott has obviously never been in any of the places he describes. F

5. Walcott redefines life as we know it. T

Essay

6. Where are you after reading this piece?

Ars Poetica

Multiple-Choice

1. What is the author’s view of the Venus de Milo?

a. She is stuffy and out of date

b. She is beautiful but vain

c. She will always be at the top of art

d. We cannot tell from what she says

2. “I discover the sun” probably means –

a. She finds out the sun’s chemical composition

b. She leaps up with feathers glued to her arms

c. She finds herself

d. She finds new adventures and light in her life

True/False

3. The author of this poem is content being herself. T

4. This poem gets straight to the point, displaying the point in action. T

5. The author believes that we could all use to be a bit more like Venus. F

Essay

6. What is the main theme of this poem?

Testimonial

Multiple-Choice

1. What is one of the main themes of this poem?

a. youth

b. prosperity

c. respect

d. decoration

2. Who is the main subject of this poem?

a. the author

b. the audience

c. a bird

d. a baby

True/False

3. Dove tells us about our childhoods. F

4. Dove dwells on her mistakes. F

5. This poem is somewhat bittersweet in that it recollects what may have been a better time. T

Essay

6. What does Dove mean when she says “back when the earth was new?”

Visions

Multiple-Choice

1. Lee carried __________ to his __________’s grave.

a. stones/ father

b. flowers/mother

c. flowers/ father

d. stones/ mother

2. Lee was having

a. hallucinations

b. visions

c. nightmares

d. delusions

True/False

3. Lee has finally gotten over his father’s death. F

4. Lee understands that his visions are not reality. T

5. Lee tries to connect with the memory of his father. T

Essay

6. What do you think Lee’s prevailing emotion is in this piece?

Medusa

Multiple-Choice

1. The tone of the piece

a. is constant

b. changes with the switch in viewpoint

c. changes randomly

d. changes because Medusa dies.

2.Medusa is afraid of

a. remembering the past

b. turning God into stone.

c. becoming a slave

d. dying

True/False

3. Medusa is about to die when the poem concludes. T

4. Medusa was once a normal human. T

5. Medusa turns God into stone. F

Essay

6. How do you feel about Medusa now that you have sort of been put into her shoes?

Section 5

1. Examples of Metaphor:

from Mushrooms

            “Diet on water, / On crumbs of shadow”

            “Our toes, our noses / Take hold on the loam, /Acquire the air”

2. Examples of Image:

from Night Journey

“We rush into the rain / That rattles double glass”

“I watch a beacon swing / From dark to blazing bright”

3. Examples of Personification:

from Mirror

            “I am silver and exact. I have no preconceptions.”

            “Now I am a lake.”

4. Examples of Symbol:

from In Honor of My Father

            “cramping chamber’s chill,”

“A dryness is upon the house /My father loved and tended. /Beyond his firm and sculpted door /His light and lease have ended”

5. Examples of Alliteration:

            from Bean Eaters

“twinklings… twinges… tobacco” “cloths… crumbs” “rented… room… receipts”

6. Examples of Onomatopoeia:

            from Testimonial

“whisper”

“breeze”

7. Examples of Assonance:

            from Testimonial

“swooned/spoonfuls”

“caught/called”

“my/life”

8. Examples of Irony:

            from Elsewhere

“the silent / scream / of winter branches, wonders read as signs”

“make a career of conscience”

“like the faceless numbers / that bewilder you in your telephone /diary. Like last year’s massacres”

Back to English Language

On Pilate’s Singing

The quote “sing, sing” is very intricately involved in Pilate’s life because so many of her problems are assuaged, so many of her feelings are expressed, and so much of her temperament is shaped by song. Pilate does not have a bellybutton, which would make it seem as though she were completely disconnected from her mother (in addition to the fact that her mother died the moment before she was born). This is not completely true, however, because Pilate’s mother is named Sing, and that is what Pilate does. Though song has a very important significance to the plot of the story, as Pilate is destined to discover what Solomon’s song really means.

            One of the most memorable scenes in the book is when Pilate recollects her life on the island; where the people are strange but suit her well, and everyone’s life is insular and heedless of the outside world. After Pilate has had her only child, she is lonely because she cannot see the child’s father and so instead she sees the spirit of her dead father, who tells her “sing, sing.” Her father meant Singing Bird, but regardless, from that day forward song became a part of Pilate’s character. It is interesting, then, that Sing turned out to be Pilate’s mother, as though song was what initially gave her life, and sustained her through her life.

            Pilate’s singing is also intimately involved with her brother’s family, as many of her encounters with them are when she is singing or humming. For instance, she sings when Robert Smith jumps off the building, which is the day before Milkman is born. There is also a strange scene where Macon is actually showing some emotion that is not anger or resentment as he stops outside Pilate’s house and, unbeknownst to her and her family, listens to her and her daughter and her granddaughter singing together. Pilate is also humming in the scene where Milkman first meets her.

            There is a large amount of cultural heritage in Pilate’s singing, as well. Solomon’s song tells a story, as many early African-American songs do. These songs would tell of times when people were free in Africa, or how to reach the Underground Railroad, or they would inspire, or they would alleviate pain. Pilate is one of the few characters in the novel who has respect for her family and her heritage, and that is telling in the fact that she remembers old songs that have been passed down (Solomon was her grandfather who died before she was born).

            Pilate’s song is like a mode of transportation, perhaps to some distant past, or to some other world where things aren’t so hard. Despite the fact that Pilate is a strong woman, she has periods when she is down and song uplifts her, like it did that first time on the island. Song is also like the epitome of expression, because song involves artistry and mental exertion in the words, as well as involving the entire body in the creation of the music.

Back to English Lit

   I. National Judicial Supremacy

a.      established by Article III Section 1 => “one supreme Court”

                                                               i.      intended to settle arguments made in smaller sectors of the country

                                                             ii.      constitution says that you are basically a supreme Court Justice for life, so you have no need to remain affiliated with a certain party

                                                            iii.      courts have become more powerful over time

1.      Chief Justice John Marshall was one of the main reasons for this alteration; he has become a symbol of the supreme court for the development of JUDICIAL REVIEW

b.      Judicial review of the other branches

                                                               i.      Congress v. Constitution, who should win???

1.      example: Marbury v. Madison with the midnight appointments of John Adams were left incomplete but should have been final by the constitution but Congress disagrees

2.      Marshall said that Congress had no right to sue Marbury and that the Constitution was being misinterpreted

c.      judicial review of the state government

                                                               i.      judicial review – the authority to say publicly that government acts are unacceptable because they are in violation of the Constitution.

                                                             ii.      Marshall allowed the Supreme Court to really hold up its part in checks and balances by establishing their power

                                                            iii.      very important!!! – sets the Federal Government above State and District governments as far as law proceedings – Fed. Gov. cannot be overruled

d.      the exercise of judicial review

                                                               i.      Components:

1.      The courts cannot violate the constitution without losing their power

2.      National laws trump state and local laws

3.      the supreme Court has the final say on what exactly is meant by the components of the Constitution

                                                             ii.      question of whether this is acceptable in the context that America really wants to be a democracy

1.      Alexander Hamilton answered this by saying that they had “neither force nor will, but only judgment.”

2.      interprets the constitution, so they are only human but they are well educated, appointed for life, etc. and they will be appointed only if they seem to be good people for the job

3.      still a debate on the courts working outside majoritarian rule

II.                 The organization of the courts

a.      individuals can be tried in either state or district courts

b.      they coexist peaceably

c.      some court fundamentals

                                                               i.      criminal and civil cases

1.      crime is breaking a law that says you should or you should not do something

2.      criminal law controlled by state legislations

3.      criminal case – crime is involved, crime defined as disrupting order (public)

4.      civil cased – means that the matter at question is a domestic/private disagreement, i.e. traffic accidents, contracts, divorces

5.      government can be (and often is) defendant in civil suits

                                                             ii.      federal and state court systems

1.      U.S. DISTRICT COURTS/STATE TRIAL COURTS

2.      U.S. COURTS OF APPEALS/STATE INTERMEDIATE APPELLATE COURTS

3.      /STATE COURTS OF LAST RESORT

4.      REQUEST FOR REVIEW BY SUPREME COURT

5.      U.S. SUPREME COURT (original jurisdiction)

                                                            iii.      procedures and policymaking

1.      common (judge-made) law – used for precedents, come from decisions already made in (and therefore upheld by) any U.S. court

2.      adjudication is the final decision

3.      judges have opinions which give reason for the way they rule

d.      the U.S. district courts

                                                               i.      sources of litigation

1.      criminal cases and civil cases involving national law or large sums of money, treason, municipality problems, etc.

                                                             ii.      US district court – the lowest federal court (of 3), where legal action starts

                                                            iii.      US court of appeals – the second of the three, appeals from district court rulings as well as cases involving federal agencies can be reviewed

e.      the U.S. courts of appeals

                                                               i.      appellate court proceedings

1.      regional courts

2.      three judges usually

3.      receive the briefs beforehand

                                                             ii.      precedents and making decisions

1.      precedent – a previous decision in the courts which becomes the grounds for the present decision

2.      state decisis – means let the decision stand; term for when a precedent is used in court

                                                            iii.      uniformity of law

1.      decisions within a region are made by the same courts so that there is one interpretation of law for a specific region (not twenty or so)

III.               the Supreme Court

a.      very difficult to balance freedom, order, and equality

b.      access to the court

                                                               i.      original jurisdiction – the right of a certain court to the original hearing of a case (first hearing)

                                                             ii.      appellate jurisdiction – the right of a certain court hearing a case that was already ruled/tried in another court

c.      access to and decision making in the U.S. Supreme Court

                                                               i.      99% of cases declined after discussion for being held in Supreme court

                                                             ii.      once it is decided that the court will hear the trial, called “the docket” there are…

1.      briefs

2.      oral argument

3.      conference

4.      opinions

d.      The solicitor general

                                                               i.      federal question – any problem already answered by some part of the Constitution, a federal law, or a federal treaty

                                                             ii.      docket – the agenda of a court

                                                            iii.      the solicitor general is the representative of the national government for the purposes of the Supreme Court

                                                           iv.      amicus curiae – an interest group files an amicus curiae brief  (interest groups are not directly involved in the case)

                                                             v.      rule of 4 – the unwritten rule requiring 4 or more justices to come to a decision that the case is relevant enough to be heard in the Supreme Court before it actually is

e.      decision making

                                                               i.      judicial restraint and judicial activism

1.      judicial restraint – judges read the constitution as though its wording is the exact, and only, meaning (and make decisions on this basis)

2.      judicial activism – judges interpret the constitution based on what they believe is right

                                                             ii.      judgment and argument

1.      judgment – the case’s verdict

2.      argument – the reason behind a judge’s decision

3.      concurrence – court’s majority decision that is concurred by judge for a different reason

4.      dissent – when a judge disagrees with the majority

                                                            iii.      the opinion

1.      most critical job of justices because it explains WHY

f.        strategies on the court

                                                               i.      judges have to be keen social characters to get pertinent information to emerge sometimes

g.      the chief justice

                                                               i.      usu. oldest

                                                             ii.      intellectual leadership

                                                            iii.      directs the group in a policy opinion

IV.              judicial recruitment

a.      the appointment of Federal Judges

                                                               i.      advice and consent of the Senate

1.      senatorial courtesy – the Senate has the power to confirm nominations for federal courts. the courtesy is that they won’t confirm if the nomination is of someone who is conflicting with their state’s oldest senator in the president’s political party

                                                             ii.      The American Bar Association

1.      1946-1997

2.      screened potential justices

3.      biggest U.S. organization of lawyers

b.      Recent Presidents and the Federal Judiciary

                                                               i.      Clinton was in large contrast to his predecessors because he did NOT have basically all white males appointed

c.      Diversity on the federal courts

                                                               i.      Latinos and women always underrepresented

                                                             ii.      African Americans sometimes over represented, sometimes very underrepresented

d.      appointments to the supreme court

V.                 the consequences of judicial decisions

a.      supreme court rulings: implementation and impact

                                                               i.      plea bargain – the defendant agrees to plead guilty (hopefully for something they have actually done) early on, to make it easier for the court, and the court, in return, makes it easier for the convicted defendant by lessening their sentence

b.      public opinion and the supreme court

                                                               i.      supreme court is under public scrutiny, which is good so that they don’t just decide whatever based on personal motives

VI.              the courts and models of democracy

a.      courtly demeanor

                                                               i.      very respectful, there is a way to go about addressing everyone, and it is important because shouting really accomplishes nothing

Back to Government

Government benefits are showing a trend of increasing in a somewhat volatile manner for the elderly, and decreasing rather steadily for children. Entitlement programs such as Medicare and Medicaid have affected this; as well as the introduction of birth control pills, and their widespread use. Medicare emerges in 1965, explaining a good part of the upward trend for the elderly. Medicaid also emerged in 1965, but Medicaid is a need-based entitlement program that is mainly beneficial to children, however birth control was widely used in the United States by 1964, which certainly decreased the number of children. Medicare could be considered the main reason for the increase in benefits for the elderly, and birth control could be considered the main reason for the decrease in benefits for the children. Medicare has had several amendments, all of them coming before a fluctuation in the graph. Medicare is a more widespread program than Medicaid, covering health insurance for all elderly persons. The baby boomers (from the mid-1940’s to the mid-1950’s) are middle-aged by the last fluctuation of the “elderly” graph, which may account for some of its volume. Because there are proportionally fewer children following the baby-boom generation, children would logically receive a smaller percentage of the welfare benefits.

Back to Government

Just after it has dawned on Gulliver that, in accordance with the ways the giants see him, his place in the world is very small, he begins the fourth chapter depicting the lay of the land in Brobdingnag. It is interesting, however, that Brobdingnag is isolated by the fact of the turbulent waters surrounding their peninsula inhibit bartering and by the fact that, despite the large amounts of fish that populate the oceans, they are all too small for the people of Brobdingnag to catch. This is significant because it is testimony to the fact that Gulliver is “normal” while the people of Brobdingnag are gargantuan. The marine life in the streams throughout Brobdingnag are plenty large for the people there, but they are isolated because the fish in the sea are much larger. It also may be significant that Gulliver is carried around in a box, like a common rat. While these people arguably could be seen as slightly more hospitable than those of Lilliput, they are still lacking quite a lot in manners, while also being grotesque in their ailments because of their monstrous size.

Back to English Lit

Second Internal Assessment

Math Methods

Internal Assessment II

Only when one attains a thorough understanding of the method through which a solution is achieved can they strive to solve similar problems correctly every time. After that, certain assumptions can usually be made so that further parallel problems are less time consuming. What follows is an analysis of problems relating to investing money which will, in sequence, prove trends which will aid in the development of methodology as mentioned. The graphs in this document were created using an online function graphing aide, which can be found at the following URL: http://www.walterzorn.com/grapher/grapher_e.htm. The tables in this document were made using the Microsoft® Word table creator from Windows 2000.

Table 1

            For the first example, it is assumed that Alan is making 12 percent interest per year interest on a 1000-dollar investment compounded yearly. Table 1 shows the amount value of his investment (A) (in dollars) after t years, “t equals zero” representing the initial investment made. To achieve these solutions, it was noted that 12 percent, in decimal form, is .12 ; .12 added to one (to represent 100 percent plus the 12 percent interest) is 1.12 . This number multiplied by the initial investment, to make 112 percent of the initial investment, accurately predicts the account value for the first year. This is because any time one wants to find a certain percent of a value added to the value, they need only multiply the sum of one and the percent (in decimal form) by the original value. For instance, if you wanted to find 108 percent of 60, you would multiply 60 by 1.08, for a product of 64.8 . 4.8 is 8 percent of 60. But it is not enough to simply predict the first year. There is an easier way to predict five years, ten years in advance without multiplying each of Alan’s investments by 1.12 . The investment value two years after the initial investment is 1254.40 dollars, which, divided by 1000, the initial investment, makes 1.2544 . The logarithm of 1.2544 divided by the logarithm of 1.12 (original interest rate) makes the number two, which is also the number of years the investment has aged. This same principal applies to any real number: if a ^c equals b then the logarithm of b divided by the logarithm of a equals c. For example, it is known that two squared equals four, but pretend that you were given the problem of two to the power of c equaling four. The logarithm of four divided by the logarithm of two, as mentioned in the before formula, equals two, the known value of c. It can therefore be deduced that the sum of one and the interest rate, to the power of t (number of years after the initial investment), multiplied by the initial investment will give you the value of the investment (A) after t years. For example, Alan’s investment is worth about 1726.34 dollars after five years. This number is equal to the sum of one plus .12 (the interest rate), to the power of five (years), multiplied by 1000 (the initial investment).

            A = P (1 + r) ^t             A = 1000 (1 +.12) ^t                      A = 1000 (1.12) ^t

Ex)       t=1      Δ         A=1000 (1.12) ¹              Δ          A=1120                                              

Ex)       t=2      Δ         A=1000 (1.12) ²              Δ          A=1254.40

Table 2

B = P (1 + r / n) ^{n t}        B = P (1 + r / 12) ^12t    B = P (1 + .12 / 12) ^12t                                B = P (1 + .01) ^12t         B = P (1.01) ^12t         B =1000 (1.01) ^12t

Ex)       t=1      Δ          B =1000 (1.01) ¹²⁽¹⁾       Δ          B=1126.80

Ex)       t=2      Δ          B =1000 (1.01) ¹²⁽²⁾       Δ          B=1269.68

Ex)       t=5      Δ          B=1000 (1.01) ¹²⁽⁵⁾        Δ          B=1816.49

The graph shown below, Graph A, displays Tables 1 and 2 on one graph. The green line is Table 1, A = 1000(1. 12) ^t , and Table 2 is the red line, A = 1000(1.1268) ^t.

Note how Table 2, representing the same interest rate compounded monthly, which has a higher value for less time since the initial investment. In Graph A, the x-axis represents t, the time since the initial investment, and the y-axis represents A, the amount value of the investment after t time.

Graph A : The Same Interest Rate, (in red) Compounded Monthly

X-Axis :           Time since initial investment in years             (t)

Y-Axis :            Amount value of the investment after (t) time                       (A)

Green:             Table 1

Red:                 Table 2

            Now look at what happens when one re-invests periodically. Take Barbara as an example. For five years she has invested 200 dollars a year at 12 percent interest. After that she stops investing, but is still getting the 12 percent interest (assume she has made no withdrawals). One way to find out the value of her investment per year is to simply use the formula A = P (1 + r) ^t as shown above, only adding 200 dollars per year to the formula for the first four years and then proceeding as normal (adjusting the value of t so that it fits if necessary, like if you started using the formula where t=5, then t should actually equal 0). Table 3 shows C, the amount of money her account is worth after t years, with only yearly compounding. Table 4 shows what would happen to D, the amount of money her account would be worth after t years with her investment the same, only at a bank that compounds interest monthly. The results were found as they were for Table 3, only incorporating the slightly varied compounding formula : A = P (1 + r / n) ^{n t}       .

Table 3

First Investment: $200  Interest Rate + 100% of Investment: 1.12

Amount Added for First Four Years: $200 per year

First Four Years: C=Previous Investment x 1.12+200

Ex)       t=1      Δ          C=200(1.12)+200       Δ          C=424.00

Ex)       t=2       Δ          C=424.00(1.12)+200  Δ          C =674.88

Ex)       t=3       Δ          C=674.88(1.12)+200  Δ          C=955.87

            Then, after first four years (five if you count the initial investment, year “0”), proceed as normal. Use year four as the initial investment.

            Using the above method, if t=4 then C=1270.57. Make the starting year (t=1) year 5.

Ex)       t=5       Δ          C=1270.57(1.12) ¹        Δ          C=1423.04

Table 3

Table 4

            Table 4

            The same rules apply, except incorporating the compounded interest.

            D = P (1 + r / n) ^{n t}       D = P (1 + .12 / 12) ^{12 t} This is shown above to work as D=P(1.1268) ^t

Ex)       t=1      Δ          D=200(1.1268)+200    Δ          D=425.36

Ex)       t=2      Δ          D=425.36(1.12)+200  Δ          D=679.30

            Year four (represented below by P) was found to have a value of $1287.85

Ex)       t=5      Δ          D=1287.85 (1.1268) ¹                 Δ          D=1451.15

            Graph 2, below, shows Barbara starting in 1990 so that the last payment she makes is in 1994. It also shows Alan, who has only made one payment, in 1994, when Barbara made her last one. All Barbara’s payments are 200 dollars, and since there are five of them, she has invested the same amount as Alan has, only spread out farther. Barbara’s investment will be worth increasingly more than Adam’s as time goes on because she was the first to make an investment and therefore, by the time Alan made his investment, Barbara’s investment was worth more. The amount she had accumulated interest for those four years, and investing 200 dollars each year made the amount of interest go up each year. It is wise not to wait to invest.

            Mathematics is all about logical rules. Once a rule has been established, it is not broken (unless a human error is made in calculation). Rules can be gleaned from the observation of changes in areas where the rule applies using programmed technology. If you were given a calculator with the ability to accurately graph any function, though you forgot why graphs looked a certain way, you could, in theory, test enough graphs to grasp or even develop a method of graphing on your own. Observation is critical, especially when there is and will always be a certain solution to a given problem. It is developing personal methods of reaching solutions that is up to each and every individual that sets forth to understand mathematics.

Back to Math Methods

 

Timeline (images modified from MS clipart)

 

1929 in Omaha, Nebraska: two white men set fire to Malcolm’s family’s house. His pregnant mother barely made it out.

1931: Malcolm X’s father, an advocate of Marcus Garvey, is brutally murdered, probably by members of the KKK.

June 27, 1937: 23 year-old Joe Louis, a black man, wins a fight against James J. Braddock, acquiring the title of the world’s heavyweight champion.

Summer 1940: Malcolm X goes to Boston, Massachusetts for the first time. Soon after seeing the social differences between Boston and Lansing, which was his home before, he decides to live in Boston with his half-sister, Ella.

1954 - Malcolm X creates the New York Temple, as suggested by his friend and mentor, Elijah Muhammad. This temple is to give potential converts to the Nation of Islam in New York City a place to worship.

1956 – Betty, who later marries Malcolm X, joins the temple Malcolm X has formed in New York.

1958 – Ella, one of Malcolm X’s old heroes, joins the Nation of Islam.

1957 – Malcolm X begins a newspaper for the Nation of Islam, which he calls “Muhammad Speaks.”

1959 – Malcolm X travels to Africa, especially where people are discovering the Nation of Islam, and again alters his views, because he thinks American Civil Rights advocates are being too pro-assimilation.

1965 – After his pilgrimage to Mecca, Malcolm X goes back to America and begins a group called the Organization for Afro-American Unity, calling people to unite in the fight against racism.

Back to History

a) Interest groups may be described as limited in view, being that each usually thinks only in a narrow spectrum of needs. They are usually created by large companies, and often employed to affect legislation in their favor. The primary intent of interest groups is to sway political decisions (change legislation so that it is favorable) by bringing knowledge and representation (which lends importance) to an issue.

b) While political parties intend to promote change as well, the spectrum is broader. Despite the continuing power struggle between political parties (which could make it seem as though power was the primary goal of political parties), the main goal of political parties is to improve the country, through appropriate legislation, to approach their standards of freedom, equality, and order.

c) Interest groups facilitate the goal of improving the country by increasing participation in the government from outside the government (regular citizens). This is because interest groups represent the population that has a certain mindset on a particular issue. Also, the amount of people involved in an interest group shows a political party that their issue is important (and not just an erratic idea of some old loon). Another way that interest groups facilitate the goal of improving the country is by creating an appropriate agenda, because political parties are focused on the bigger picture, which leaves little room for detail analysis. Interest groups bring in lots of focused information, clarifying ideas that the political party might have had to begin with, or (potentially) reasoning a political party out of a conflicting view (that they may have developed in ignorance).

d) By bringing a large amount of focused knowledge about a certain topic to a political party, interest groups can increase their chances of promoting favorable legislation. Because their education is superior, interest groups can bring very specific knowledge to the table about the topic of their concern. They can also leave out certain details that might create opinions counter to their views. Additionally, interest groups can shed light on a certain agenda that others may have ignored or interpreted differently. With knowledge as their arsenal, interest groups can manipulate legislators, moving them to certain actions based on details that they may not have been aware of.

Back to Government

a)      The artist of this cartoon is pointing out the irony in Nader’s devotion to ending waste – he is wasting his time. The “Green Party Votes” might as well be thrown away, because the majority is going to go to either the Democratic or the Republican Party.

b)      The United States has a single-winner or plurality voting system. This means that voters can only vote for one candidate, and the person with the top votes wins. This hinders minor-party candidates because they may be a close second choice, but if voters only get one choice they will more likely choose one of the two major parties. Another thing that hinders third parties is the electoral college. The electoral college, because it consists of persons who are supposedly wiser than your average American citizen, get to really vote for who they want to win. Many pledge to vote for a certain candidate, but when Americans vote, they are, in fact, voting for an elector who will be the person to cast the actual vote. This hinders minor parties because little (or no) incumbent power turns electors (who are chosen by each political party) off of voting for a party that is not likely to win (their vote counts!).

c)      Minor party votes have a funny, unintentional impact on elections – they don’t really count for much, but the voters draw masses away from the population that would potentially vote for a Democrat or a Republican. So in a race where the votes were close, persons who voted for a minor party (and would have normally leaned towards one side or the other) might actually inadvertently determine the outcome of the race. Additionally, minor parties do have some support, and they shed light on different ideas that the power-hungry (because they actually have a chance) larger parties would only touch on.

Back to Government

Pertinent Government Vocabulary 

Constitution – text covering the three branches of the US government, legislative, executive, and judicial; #1 law in the United States, frame of the government. tells exactly what each branch can and cannot do, separation of powers. also separates powers of state from powers of national government, establishes national government supremacy. 1787. 27 amendments, 1-10 being the Bill of Rights.

Enumerated powers – (Constitution, Article 1 Section 8) powers given to Congress. clauses: necessary and proper, commerce. limited by 10th amendment. Enumerated powers act – idea that any proposed laws have some grounding in the Constitution. McCulloch v. Maryland supports this and necessary and proper clause by stating that since the government has the power to tax and spend, it can do certain things (like open a bank) which may facilitate the execution of those powers

necessary and proper clause – (a.k.a. elastic, sweeping, basket, coefficient… clause) Article 1 Section 8; says Congress can make laws that are necessary and proper… exactly saying laws that are necessary and proper to bring forth the authority already vested in Congress, or even Executive/ Judiciary branches.

implied powers – that Congress has powers not expressly stated because, in certain cases, it may be necessary to create new laws to achieve an end (a power given)

judicial review – the check of the Judicial branch on the legislative branch. also, it is the power of the judicial branch to nullify (or bring to trial) an action of anyone (or group of people) within the executive/ legislative branches. Established by Marbury v. Madison which said that Supreme Court could overturn lower court decisions, and that courts could bring to trial actions of legislators and laws created/passed

supremacy clause – from Article 6 in the Constitution: states that Constitution is supreme over state law, and U.S. federal government decisions (such as treaties) trump state decisions

Madison’s Federalist Papers (10, 51) – 10 – supports the US Constitution; states that a larger, stronger government will provide better protection against small, domineering groups of individuals who go against what the larger percentage of the population wants. 51 – on checks and balances; separation of powers

Problems with the Articles of Confederation – what was originally intended to be the U.S. constitution, but turned out to not bring enough central government into play, rather, had each state like its own country. Basically all that was to the national government was declaration of war, treaties, territorial questions, and recording used currency.

Republic – people are involved in making decisions for themselves, or at least to some extent – no king, no dictator, etc.

Federalists v. Anti-Federalists – Federalists wanted the Constitution to be ratified. One of the 2 prominent political parties in early America, the Federalists included Washington, Adams, and Hamilton. Anti-Federalists were advocates of states’ rights, supporting first the Articles of Confederation and then evolving into the Democratic-Republican Party, prominent members including Jefferson and Madison.

elastic clause – another name for the necessary and proper clause ^ see above for definition

commerce clause – Used as: Congress can create laws not brought up in the Constitution and get them passed. Congress has authority in the following areas of commerce: American Indian, foreign, and interstate.

grant-in-aid – government funding for the purposes of financing a specific task; it is a federal (not state) government thing. government provides specific rules, and if these rules aren’t met, then the state (or whoever is receiving the grant… usually a lower government) does not get the money

categorical grant – formula or project, these grants have a specific way that they are supposed to be used.

formula grant – a categorical grant that is provided to every government eligible under a specific formula

project grant – the government decides about these grants individually, often there are many projects and only so much project grant money so the federal government gives it to the projects that they deem most worthy

block grant – gives the recipient a lot of choice in how to use it, for example, a block grant will be a sum of money issued for, say, law enforcement in the state of California. there are then a lot of ways that money can be spent

Federalism – the U.S. system of allotting certain powers to the Federal government, and allowing the powers not expressly said to belong to the Federal government to be given to the state and local governments. powers given states are often called reserved powers

entitlement – a right provided by law. entitlement programs are where government gives certain amounts of money to persons qualifying, which furthers social welfare, etc. (examples: Medicare, Medicaid) (can be joint effort of state and federal governments)

unfunded mandate – a law that says something must be done but does not allot any funds for the job’s completion

public opinion – the collection of opinions or views, could be the majority view; often affected by media/propaganda

socioeconomic status – the relative position of a person or a family based on education, occupation, and income; wealth may also come into play; often seen as affecting potential health and well-being of a person/persons

mass media – public information (usually free or cheap) intended to be seen by a very large amount of people

10th Amendment – checks the national government, specifically Congress, by saying that if a power isn’t given Congress in the Constitution, Congress doesn’t have it. allows some independence for states so that the Federal government doesn’t get too strong.

States rights v. Federal System – states rights protected by 10th Amendment, but supremacy clause says that the Federal government overrides State and Local authority. the federal system is federalism, as defined above ^ 

infotainment – (information + entertainment, portmanteau) news that attempts to draw attention by amalgamating irrelevant pop-culture news and serious, relevant news

agenda – topics currently being debated in government

horse race journalism – especially in covering elections, journalism that capitalizes on stats and differences of candidates, especially who is in the lead, instead of focusing on things like policy

photo op – either a major political figure doing good deeds in view of the public (photographed so…) or an opportunity to photograph a memorable event/ time in the life of a politician/celebrity

Federal Communication Commission (FCC) – est. 1943 – communications act – government agency designed by congress and regulated by the Executive branch; observe radio, TV, cable, telephone, wires between US and anywhere else…

suffrage – right to vote

franchise – any right. can be that the government gives the exclusive right to manufacturing something to some business or person

class-action suit – a large group brings to trial a law or an occurrence that pertains somehow to all of them

direct primary – election reform encouraged in the Progressive era; candidates for the actual race are chosen directly by voters

recall – election reform encouraged in the Progressive era; taking someone elected out of office

referendum – election reform encouraged in the Progressive era; voters choose an issue

initiative – election reform encouraged in the Progressive era; petition that allows voters to suggest what will be settled in Congress or in referendum; agencies exist that are accepting petitions

nomination – being the only candidate for a certain party

electoral college – what voters actually vote for, these are the people pledged to vote for president/ VP

caucus – where a political party meets to determine what their candidates/issues are going to be

two-party system – two big parties head to head; other parties may exist but they are too small to be of much significance

proportional representation – the percent that a party wins in an election is proportional to the number of seats they get in Congress

national committee – a political party’s committee – includes representatives from each state

congressional campaign committee – in charge of fundraising for candidates for Congress within a party

primary election – selects the candidate within a party that will run against other parties

open primary – regardless of which party you belong to (or lean towards), you pick whichever party and vote for one of their candidates (can’t vote in both parties)

closed primary – you have to say what party you lean towards before you get your ballot (and have to vote in your own party)

local caucus – goes from local to national in steps to select the delegates that will be involved in the national convention of that party

presidential primary – selects delegates for the party’s national convention (delegates will ultimately choose the presidential candidate)

mid-term elections – elections for legislative branch on years when president is not being elected

split ticket – choosing a person from one party for one office and a person from another party for another office

straight ticket – all the offices are chosen as candidates from one party on a voter’s ticket

Federal Election Commission (FEC) – within the Federal government, finances campaigns for federal office

federal elections (Congressional elections) – elections for federal office

interest group – (a.k.a. lobby) people team up and try to have an impact on governmental pursuits

lobbyist – member of an interest group who speaks on their behalf

trade association – public relations for an industry

Political Action Committee (PAC) – gives donations to the campaign to the candidates

direct lobbying – trying to sway a legislator by talking with them directly

grassroots lobbying – lobbying by people who aren’t exactly in an interest group; volunteers

citizen groups – groups of citizens lobbying for stuff outside their personal interests

issue network – a  bunch of people with varying interests involved in governmental pursuits focused on a specific issue, these people pooling their knowledge

reapportionment – changing the boundaries of representatives based on change in voter population/demographics

impeachment – when a government official gets charged with bribery, high crimes and misdemeanors, or treason

incumbent – the person currently in office

gerrymandering – (attempts to maximize opportunities for candidates of a certain party)

redrawing the lines of congressional representatives

racial gerrymandering – gerrymandering ^ [defined above] by race

veto – a bill that gets passed in Congress (both houses) gets sent to the president for approval, he can veto it and it doesn’t become a law unless there is a two-thirds majority for both the house and the senate that pass it

pocket veto – if Congress adjourns within ten days of submitting a bill to the president and he doesn’t sign it (if he doesn’t sign it within ten days otherwise, the bill becomes law anyway)

line-item veto (Governors only!) – state governors can decide to veto a part of a bill (can be overridden of course)

standing committee – a committee in Congress that is concerned with a specific subject, and is permanent

joint committee – can be standing or not, but always involves members of both the House and the Senate, and trumps similar committees in either the House or the Senate

select committee – a committee in Congress that is concerned with a specific subject, and is temporary

conference committee – when the House and the Senate differ, the conference committee is made to work it out, and is temporary

speaker of the House – in House of Representatives, leader from the majority party who presides over all House dealings; speaks for the House (to the public, etc.)

majority leader – Senate – majority leader; House – second in command of the leading political party<