The Dead Sea Scrolls

In 1947, in caves along the shore of the Dead Sea, a cache of documents was found which dated back to the time of Jesus. These documents were apparently written by a community of Essenes who had lived in the area. The documents had been hidden in the caves, presumably, in case the Romans were to overrun the Holy Land during one of the many Jewish revolts.

Unlike the Nag Hammadi texts which were discovered only two years earlier, the Dead Sea scrolls were not turned over to a scientific team for translation, but a team of clergy and academics who seemed to want the respect and admiration that they would recieve from possessing the texts more than they wanted to translate and share them. As a result, by 1977, the Nag Hammadi Library had been translated and published. By 1987, ten years later, the world was still waiting on the Dead Sea Scoll team, with only occasional publications of certain documents or fragments during the previous 40 years.

In addition to the parchments, there were also 450 bronze coins (dating from 135BC to 136AD), an urn of annointing oil (made from a plant which has been extinct for hundreds of years), and a metal roll which has become known as the Copper Scroll.

These texts show a very different proto-Christian religion being formed than what is today the Roman Catholic Church. From those that have studied the texts, it has been proposed that the Essenes followed the teachings of Jesus and his brother James, who may be the one referred to as the "Teacher of Righteousness" in the texts. The Pauline Catholic movement was viewed as a perversion of traditional Jewish teachings, as well as those of Jesus and James.

It has also been proposed that the original research team suppressed the translation of the texts because some of the writing were in direct conflict with Roman Catholic dogma. In the Son of God Scroll, the writer explains that "Son of God" is a title used to represent the true Davidic bloodline heir to the throne of Israel. A title that could be applied to either Jesus or James, yet very different from the meaning assigned to that title in Roman Catholocism.

Probably the most profound discovery among the Dead Sea scolls was the Copper Scroll. A rolled scroll actually made from a sheet of copper, it was so badly oxidized it had to be sliced into strips to be opened. The Copper Scroll was a treasure map, listing various precious metals and religious relics that had been buried throughout the Holy Land to keep them out of Roman hands in case of revolution. Some believe this list of treasures to be a forgery,a s none of the treasures have been found. Others believe carving instructions into a sheet of metal using technology of 2000 years ago and then rolling the item into a tube seems to be a little far to go for a joke.

The Copper Scroll ends by mentioning another copy of itself, possibly hidden in the ruins of the Temple of Solomon. Excavations at the ruins of the Temple of Solomon in the 1950's revealed that the Knights Templar also excavated under the temple while stationed there during the Crusades, possibly for the purpose of building their stables there. Its possible that the Templars located not only the second copy of the scroll, but also managed to locate a good portion of the treasures described within it. This would explain not only the order's great wealth, but possibly some of the strange rituals and traditions the order supposedly had. Maybe they discovered some other Essene documents and were moved enough to incorportate their ancient rituals into their own. If the Knights Templar did indeed evolve into the Freemasonic organization, this could also be the source for some of the Masonic rituals based on characters and situations from the Old Testament which do not appear in the Bible.

The Qumran Library

The scrolls and scroll fragments recovered in the Qumran environs represent a voluminous body of Jewish documents, a veritable "library", dating from the third century B.C.E. to 68 C.E. Unquestionably, the "library," which is the greatest manuscript find of the twentieth century, demonstrates the rich literary activity of Second Temple Period Jewry and sheds insight into centuries pivotal to both Judaism and Christianity. The library contains some books or works in a large number of copies, yet others are represented only fragmentarily by mere scraps of parchment. There are tens of thousands of scroll fragments. The number of different compositions represented is almost one thousand, and they are written in three different languages: Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek.

There is less agreement on the specifics of what the Qumran library contains. According to many scholars, the chief categories represented among the Dead Sea Scrolls are:

Biblical: Those works contained in the Hebrew Bible. All of the books of the Bible are represented in the Dead Sea Scroll collection except Esther.
Apocryphal or pseudepigraphical: Those works which are omitted from various canons of the Bible and included in others.
Sectarian: Those scrolls related to a pietistic commune and include ordinances, biblical commentaries, apocalyptic visions, and liturgical works.

While the group producing the sectarian scrolls is believed by many to be the Essenes, there are other scholars who state that there is too little evidence to support the view that one sect produced all of the sectarian material. Also, there are scholars who believe there is a fourth category of scroll materials which is neither biblical, apocryphal, nor "sectarian." In their view, such scrolls, which may include "Songs of the the Sabbath Sacrifice", should be designated simply as contemporary Jewish writing.

Psalms Scroll

Tehillim

Psalms (Tehillim) 11QPs

Parchment
Copied ca. 30 - 50 C.E.
Height 18.5 cm (7 1/4 in.), length 86 cm (33 3/4 in.)
Courtesy of the Israel Antiquties Authority

This impressive scroll is a collection of psalms and hymns, comprising parts of forty-one biblical psalms (chiefly form chapters 101-50), in non-canonical sequence and with variations in detail. It also presents previously unknown hymns, as well as a prose passage about the psalms composed by King David.

One of the longer texts to be found at Qumran, the manuscript was found in 1956 in Cave 11 and unrolled in 1961. Its surface is the thickest of any of the scrolls-Äit may be of calfskin rather than sheepskin, which was the more common writing material at Qumran. The script is on the grain side of the skin. The scroll contains twenty-eight incomplete columns of text, six of which are displayed here (cols. 14-19). Each of the preserved columns contains fourteen to seventeen lines; it is clear that six to seven lines are lacking at the bottom of each column.

The scroll's script is of fine quality, with the letters carefully drawn in the Jewish book-hand style of the Herodian period. The Tetragrammaton (the four-letter divine name), however, is written in the paleo-Hebrew script.

Reference:: Sanders, J. A. The Psalms Scroll of Qumran Cave 11 (11QPsa). Discoveries in the Judaean Desert, IV. Oxford, 1965.

English Translation of the Psalms Scroll (Tehillim) 11QPs

Courtesy of the Israel Antiquities Authority

Column 19: Plea for Deliverance (A Noncanonical Psalm)

Surely a maggot cannot praise thee nor a grave worm recount thy loving-kindness.
But the living can praise thee, even those who stumble can laud thee. In revealing
thy kindness to them and by thy righteousness thou dost enlighten them. For in thy hand is the soul of every
living thing; the breath of all flesh hast thou given. Deal with us, O LORD,
according to thy goodness, according to thy great mercy, and according to thy many righteous deeds. The LORD
has heeded the voice of those who love his name and has not deprived them of his loving-kindness.
Blessed be the LORD, who executes righteous deeds, crowning his saints
with loving-kindness and mercy. My soul cries out to praise thy name, to sing high praises
for thy loving deeds, to proclaim thy faithfulness--of praise of thee there is no end. Near death
was I for my sins, and my iniquities have sold me to the grave; but thou didst save me,
O LORD, according to thy great mercy, and according to thy many righteous deeds. Indeed have I
loved thy name, and in thy protection have I found refuge. When I remember thy might my heart
is brave, and upon thy mercies do I lean. Forgive my sin, O LORD,
and purify me from my iniquity. Vouchsafe me a spirit of faith and knowledge, and let me not be dishonored
in ruin. Let not Satan rule over me, nor an unclean spirit; neither let pain nor the evil
inclination take possession of my bones. For thou, O LORD, art my praise, and in thee do I hope
all the day. Let my brothers rejoice with me and the house of my father, who are astonished by the graciousness...
[ ] For e[ver] I will rejoice in thee.

Transcription and translation by J. A. Sanders

Phylactery

Tefillin

Fragment A: height 17.7 cm (7 in.)
            length 3 cm (1 3/16 in.)
Fragment B: height 3.8 cm (1 1/2 in.)
            length 2.8 cm (1 1/8 in.)
Mur 4 Phyl
Parchment
Copied first century-early second century C.E.
Courtesy of the Israel Antiquities Authority (3)

The command "And thou shalt bind them for a sign upon thy hand, and they shall be for frontlets between thine eyes" (Deut. 6:8) was practiced by Jews from early times. In the Second Temple period the sages established that tefillin (phylacteries; amulets in Greek) would include four scriptural passages inscribed on parchment placed in box-like containers made of black leather. One of the phylacteries was worn one on the left arm and the other on the forehead. These served "as a sign upon your hand and as a symbol on your forehead that with a mighty hand the Lord freed us from Egypt" (Exodus 13:9, 16).

The Dead Sea region has now yielded the earliest phylactery remains, both of the leather containers and the inscribed strips of parchment. As a rule, phylacteries include the same four selections, two from the book of Exodus (Exod. 13:1-10; 13:11-16) and two from Deuteronomy (Deut. 6:4-9; 11:13-21). The scriptural verses were penned in clear minuscule characters on the elongated writing material, which was folded over to fit the minute compartments stamped into the containers.

References:

Milik, J. T. "Textes Hebraux et Arameens." In Les Grottes de Murabba`at, Discoveries in the Judaean Desert, II, pp. 80- 85. Oxford, 1961.

Yadin, Y. "Tefillin (Phylacteries) from Qumran [XQ Phyl 1-4])" (in Hebrew), Eretz-Israel 9 (1969):60-83 and plates.

English Translation of the Phylactery (Tefillin) Scroll

Mur 4 Phyl
Courtesy of the Israel Antiquities Authority (3)

Exod. 13:1-3

(1)And spoke
the Lord to
Moses
saying, (2)"Consecrate
to Me every first-born
the first issue of every womb of the
Israelites, man
and beast is Mine."
(3)And Moses said to the people,
"Remember this day
on which you went (free)
from Egypt, the house of bondage,
how with a mighty hand
the Lord freed you from it; no
leavened bread shall be eater. (4)This day

Transcription by J. T. Milik; translation adapted from "Tanakh," pp. 103-4. Philadelphia, 1985.

The Community Rule

Serekh ha-Yahad

Height 8.8 cm (3 7/16 in.), length 21.5 cm (8 7/16 in.)

4Q258 (Sd)
Parchment
Copied late first century B.C.E.Äearly first century C.E.
Courtesy of the Israel Antiquities Authority (7)

Originally known as The Manual of Discipline, the Community Rule contains a set of regulations ordering the life of the members of the "yahad," the group within the Judean Desert sect who chose to live communally and whose members accepted strict rules of conduct. This fragment cites the admonitions and punishments to be imposed on violators of the rules, the method of joining the group, the relations between the members, their way of life, and their beliefs. The sect divided humanity between the righteous and the wicked and asserted that human nature and everything that happens in the world are irrevocably predestined. The scroll ends with songs of praise to God.

A complete copy of the scroll, eleven columns in length, was found in Cave 1. Ten fragmentary copies were recovered in Cave 4, and a small section was found in Cave 5. The large number of manuscript copies attests to the importance of this text for the sect. This particular fragment is the longest of the versions of this text found in Cave 4.

Reference: Qimron, E. "A Preliminary Publication of 4QSd Columns VII-VIII" (in Hebrew). Tarbiz 60 (1991):435-37.

English Translation of The Community Rule

And according to his insight he shall admit him. In this way both his love and his hatred. No man shall argue or quarrel with the men of perdition. He shall keep his council in secrecy in the midst of the men of deceit and admonish with knowledge, truth and righteous commandment those of chosen conduct, each according to his spiritual quality and according to the norm of time. He shall guide them with knowledge and instruct them in the mysteries of wonder and truth in the midst of the members of the community, so that they shall behave decently with one another in all that has been revealed to them. That is the time for studying the Torah (lit. clearing the way) in the wilderness. He shall instruct them to do all that is required at that time, and to separate from all those who have not turned aside from all deceit.

These are the norms of conduct for the Master in those times with respect to his loving and to his everlasting hating of the men of perdition in a spirit of secrecy. He shall leave to them property and wealth and earnings like a slave to his lord, (showing) humility before the one who rules over him. He shall be zealous concerning the Law and be prepared for the Day of Revenge.

He shall perform the will [of God] in all his deeds and in all strength as He has commanded. He shall freely delight in all that befalls him, and shall desire nothing except God's will...

Transcription and translation by E. Qimron.

Calendrical Document

Mishmarot

Height 13.4 cm (5 1/4 in.), length 21.1 cm (8 1/4 in.)

4Q321 (Mishmarot Ba)
Parchment
Copied ca. 50-25 B.C.E.
Courtesy of the Israel Antiquities Authority (10)

A significant feature of the community was its calendar, which was based on a solar system of 364 days, unlike the common Jewish lunar calendar, which consisted of 354 days. The calendar played a weighty role in the schism of the community from the rest of Judaism, as the festivals and fast days of the group were ordinary work days for the mainstream community and vice versa.

According to the calendar, the new year always began on a Wednesday, the day on which God created the heavenly bodies. The year consisted of fifty-two weeks, divided into four seasons of thirteen weeks each, and the festivals consistently fell on the same days of the week. It appears that these rosters were intended to provide the members of the "New Covenant" with a time-table for abstaining from important activities on the days before the dark phases of the moon's waning and eclipse (duqah).

References: Jaubert, A. "Le Calendrier de Jubiles et de la Secte de Qumran: Ses origines Bibliques," Vetus Testamentum 3 (1953):250-64.; Talmon, S. "The Calendar of the Judean Covenanteers." In The World of Qumran from Within: Collected Studies, pp. 147-85. Jerusalem, 1989.; Talmon, S. and I. Knohl. "A Calendrical Scroll from Qumran Cave IV -- Miþ Ba (4Q321)" (in Hebrew), Tarbiz 60 (1991):505-21.

English Translation of the Calendrical Document (Mishmarot)

[on the first {day} in {the week of} Jedaiah {which falls} on the tw]elfth in it {the seventh month}. On the second {day} in {the week of} Abiah {which falls} on the twenty- f[ifth in the eighth {month}; and duqah {is} on the third] {day}
[in {the week of} Miyamin {which falls} on the twelfth] in it {the eighth month}. On the third {day} in {the week of} Jaqim {which falls} on the twen[ty-fourth in the ninth {month}; and duqah {is} on the fourth] {day}
[in {the week of} Shekania {which falls} on the eleven]th in it {the ninth month}. On the fifth {day} in {the week of} Immer {which falls} on the twe[n]ty-third in the te[nth {month}; and duqah {is} on the sixth {day} in {the week of} Je]shbeab {which falls}
[on the tenth in] it {the tenth month}. On the [si]xth {day} in {the week of} Jehezkel {which falls} on the twenty-second in the eleventh month [and duqah {is on the} Sabbath in] {the week of} Petahah {which falls}
[on the ninth in it {the eleventh month}]. On the first {day} in {the week of} Joiarib {which falls} on the t[w]enty-second in the twelfth month; and [duqah {is} on the seco]nd {day} in {the week of} Delaiah {which falls}
[on the ninth in it {the twelfth month}. vacat The] se[cond] {year}: The first {month}. On the sec[on]d {day} in {the week of} Malakiah {which falls} on the tw[entieth in it {the first month}; and] duqah {is}
[on the third {day} in {the week of} Harim {which falls} on the seventh] in it {the first month}. On the fou[r]th {day} in {the week of} Jeshua {which falls} [on] the twentieth in the second {month}; and [duqah {is} on the fifth {day} in {the week of]} Haqqos {which falls} on the seventh
[in it {the second month}. On the fifth {day} in {the week of} Huppah {which falls} on the nine]teenth in the third {month}; and duqa[h] {is} on the six[th {day} in {the week of} Happisses {which falls}

Translation and transcription by S. Talmon and I. Knohl

Some Torah Precepts

Miqsat Ma`ase ha-Torah

Fragment A: height 8 cm (3 1/8 in.)
            length 12.9 cm (5 in.)
Fragment B: height 4.3 cm (1 11/16 in.) 
            length 7 cm (2 3/4 in.)
Fragment C: height 9.1 cm (3 9/16 in.)
            length 17.4 cm (6 7/8in.)

4Q396(MMTc) Parchment Copied late first century B.C.E.-early first century C.E. Courtesy of the Israel Antiquities Authority (8)

This scroll, apparently in the form of a letter, is unique in language, style, and content. Using linguistic and theological analysis, the original text has been dated as one of the earliest works of the Qumran sect. This sectarian polemical document, of which six incomplete manuscripts have been discovered, is commonly referred to as MMT, an abbreviation of its Hebrew name, Miqsat Ma`ase ha-Torah. Together the six fragments provide a composite text of about 130 lines, which probably cover about two-thirds of the original. The initial part of the text is completely missing.

Apparently it consisted of four sections: (1) the opening formula, now lost; (2) a calendar of 364 days; (3) a list of more than twenty rulings in religious law (Halakhot), most of which are peculiar to the sect; and (4) an epilogue that deals with the separation of the sect from the multitude of the people and attempts to persuade the addressee to adopt the sect's legal views. The "halakhot," or religious laws, form the core of the letter; the remainder of the text is merely the framework. The calendar, although a separate section, was probably also related to the sphere of "halakhah." These "halakhot" deal chiefly with the Temple and its ritual. The author states that disagreement on these matters caused the sect to secede from Israel.

References: Strugnell, J., and E. Qimron. Discoveries in the Judaean Desert, X. Oxford, forthcoming.; Sussman, Y. "The History of 'Halakha' and the Dead Sea Scrolls -- Preliminary Observations on Miqsat Ma`ase Ha-Torah (4QMMT)" (in Hebrew), Tarbiz 59 (1990):11-76.

English Translation of Some Torah Precepts (Miqsat Ma'ase ha-Torah)

4Q396(MMTc)
Courtesy of the Israel Antiquities Authority (8)

until sunset on the eighth day. And concerning [the impurity] of
the [dead] person we are of the opinion that every bone, whether it
has its flesh on it or not--should be (treated) according to the law of the dead or the slain.
And concerning the mixed marriages that are being performed among the people, and they are sons of holy [seed],
as is written, Israel is holy. And concerning his (Israel's) [clean] animal
it is written that one must not let it mate with another species, and concerning his clothes [it is written that they should not]
be of mixed stuff; and one must not sow his field and vineyard with mixed species.
Because they (Israel) are holy, and the sons of Aaron are [most holy.]
But you know that some of the priests and [the laity intermingle]
[And they] adhere to each other and pollute the holy seed
as well as their (i.e. the priests') own [seed] with corrupt women. Since [the sons of Aaron should...]

Transcription and translation by J. Strugnell and E. Qimron

Enoch

Hanokh

Fragment A height 17.5 cm (6 7/8 in.), length 17.5 cm (6 7/8 in.)

Fragment B height 6.4 cm (2 1/2 in.), length 6.9 cm (2 11/16 in.)

4Q201(En ara)
Parchment
Copied ca. 200-150 B.C.E.
Courtesy of the Israel Antiquities Authority (11)

One of the most important apocryphic works of the Second Temple Period is Enoch. According to the biblical narrative (Genesis 5:21-24), Enoch lived only 365 years (far less than the other patriarchs in the period before the Flood). Enoch "walked with God; then he was no more for God took him."

The original language of most of this work was, in all likelihood, Aramaic (an early Semitic language). Although the original version was lost in antiquity, portions of a Greek translation were discovered in Egypt and quotations were known from the Church Fathers. The discovery of the texts from Qumran Cave 4 has finally provided parts of the Aramaic original. In the fragment exhibited here, humankind is called on to observe how unchanging nature follows God's will.

The Book of Enoch is a pseudoepigraphal work (a work that claims to be by a biblical character). The Book of Enoch was not included in either the Hebrew or most Christian biblical canons, but could have been considered a sacred text by the sectarians. The original Aramaic version was lost until the Dead Sea fragements were discovered.

Reference: Milik, Jazef. T., ed. The Books of Enoch: Aramaic Fragments of Qumran Cave 4 (Oxford, 1976) Printed book. General Collections, Library of Congress.

English Translation of Enoch (Hanokh)

4Q201(En ara)
Courtesy of the Israel Antiquities Authority (11)

Ena I ii

12.  ...But you have changed your works,
13.  [and have not done according to his command,
     and tran]sgressed against him; (and have spoken)
     haughty and harsh words, with your impure mouths,
14.  [against his majesty, for your heart is hard].
     You will have no peace.

     Ena I iii

13.  [They (the leaders) and all ... of them took
     for themselves]
14.  wives from all that they chose and
     [they began to cohabit with them and to defile
     themselves with them];
15.  and to teach them sorcery and [spells and
     the cutting of roots; and to acquaint them
     with herbs.]
16.  And they become pregnant by them and 
     bo[re (great) giants three thousand cubits high ...]

Transcription by J. T. Milik, amended by J. C. Greenfield; translation by J. C. Greenfield

Hosea Commentary

Pesher Hoshe`a

4Q166 (4QpHosa) 
Parchment
Copied late first century B.C.E.
Height 17.5 cm (6 7/8 in.), length 16.8 cm (6 5/8 in.)
Courtesy of the Israel Antiquities Authority (6)

This text is a commentary, or "pesher," on the prophetic biblical verses from the book of Hosea (2:8-14). The verse presented here refers to the relation of God, the husband, to Israel, the unfaithful wife. In the commentary, the unfaithful ones have been led astray by "the man of the lie." The document states that the affliction befalling those led astray is famine. Although this famine could be a metaphor, it may well be a reference to an actual drought cited in historical sources of that time.

The manuscript shown here is the larger of two unrelated fragments of the Hosea Commentary found in Cave 4. The script, which is identical to that of a commentary on Psalms, belongs to the rustic, semiformal type of the Herodian era.

The Hosea Commentary Scroll was first published by J. Allegro as the fifth volume of the official publication series, "Discoveries in the Judaean Desert."

In 1979, M. Horgan completed a work on all the "pesharim," or commentaries, which included an extensive treatment of the Hosea Commentary fragments. The "pesharim" interpreted the biblical text in light of events of the late Second Temple Period--seeing within the text prophesies and messages relevant to the community's beliefs and practices.

References: John Marco Allegro Qumran Cave 4. DJD V (Oxford, 1968) Printed book. General Collections, Library of Congress; Maurya Horgan Pesharim: Qumran Interpretations of Biblical Books (Washington, D.C., 1979) Printed book. General Collections, Library of Congress

English Translation of Hosea Commentary (Pesher Hoshe`a)

4Q166 (4QpHosa) 
Courtesy of the Israel Antiquities Authority (6)

Hos. 2:10-14

(10)[SHE DID NOT KNOW THAT] I MYSELF HAD GIVEN HER THE GRAIN [AND THE WINE]
[AND THE OIL, AND] (THAT) I HAD SUPPLIED [SILVER] AND GOLD ... (WHICH) THEY MADE [INTO BAAL. The interpretation of it is]
that [they] ate [and] were satisfied, and they forgot God who [had fed them, and all]
his commandments they cast behind them, which he had sent to them [by]
his servants the prophets. But to those who led them astray they listened, and they honored them [ ]
and as if they were gods, they fear them in their blindness.
vacat
(11)THEREFORE, I SHALL TAKE BACK MY GRAIN AGAIN IN ITS TIME AND MY WINE [IN ITS SEASON,]
AND I SHALL WITHDRAW MY WOOL AND MY FLAX FROM COVERING [HER NAKEDNESS.]
(12)I SHALL NOW UNCOVER HER PRIVATE PARTS IN THE SIGHT OF [HER] LO[VERS AND]
NO [ONE] WILL WITHDRAW HER FROM MY HAND.
The interpretation of it is that he smote them with famine and with nakedness so that they became a disgra[ce]
and a reproach in the sight of the nations on whom they had leaned for support, but they
will not save them from their afflictions. (13)AND I SHALL PUT AN END TO ALL HER JOY,
[HER] PIL[GRIMAGE,] HER [NEW] MOON, AND HER SABBATH, AND ALL HER FEASTS. The interpretation of it is that
they make [the fe]asts go according to the appointed times of the nation. And [all]
[joy] has been turned for them into mourning. (14)AND I SHALL MAKE DESOLATE [HER VINE]
[AND HER FIG TREE,] OF WHICH SHE SAID, "THEY ARE THE HIRE [THAT MY LOVERS HAVE GIVEN] ME."
AND I SHALL MAKE THEM A FOREST, AND THE W[ILD BEAST OF THE FIELD] WILL DEVOUR THEM.

Transcription and translation by M. Horgan

Prayer For King Jonathan

Tefillah li-Shlomo shel Yonatan ha-Melekh

4Q448
Parchment
Copied between 103-76 B.C.E.
Height 17.8 cm (7 in.), length 9.5 cm (3 3/4 in.)
Courtesy of the Israel Antiquities Authority (2)

The King Jonathan mentioned in this text can be none other than Alexander Jannaeus, a monarch of the Hasmonean dynasty who ruled Judea from 103 to 76 B.C.E. The discovery of a prayer for the welfare of a Hasmonean king among the Qumran texts is unexpected because the community may have vehemently opposed the Hasmoneans. They even may have settled in the remote desert to avoid contact with the Hasmonean authorities and priesthood. If this is indeed a composition that clashes with Qumran views, it is a single occurrence among 600 non-biblical manuscripts. However, scholars are exploring the possibility that Jonathan-Jannaeus, unlike the other Hasmonean rulers, was favored by the Dead Sea community, at least during certain periods, and may explain the prayer's inclusion in the Dead Sea materials.

This text is unique in that it can be clearly dated to the rule of King Jonathan. Three columns of script are preserved, one on the top and two below. The upper column (A) and the lower left (C) column are incomplete. The leather is torn along the lower third of the right margin. A tab of untanned leather, 2.9 by 2.9 cm, folds over the right edge above the tear. A leather thong, remains of which were found threaded through the middle of the leather tab on the right edge, probably tied the rolled-up scroll. The form of the tab--probably part of a fastening--seems to indicate that the extant text was at the beginning of the scroll, which was originally longer. Differences between the script of Column A and that of B and C could indicate that this manuscript is not the work of a single scribe.

This small manuscript contains two distinct parts. The first, column A, presents fragments of a psalm of praise to God. The second, columns B and C, bear a prayer for the welfare of King Jonathan and his kingdom. In column A lines 8-10 are similar to a verse in Psalm 154, preserved in the Psalms Scroll (11QPsa) exhibited here. This hymn, which was not included in the biblical Book of Psalms, is familiar, however, from the tenth-century Syriac Psalter.

Reference:: Eshel, E., H. Eshel, and A. Yardeni. "A Qumran Scroll Containing Part of Psalm 154 and a Prayer for the Welfare of King Jonathan and His Kingdom," Israel Exploration Journal, forthcoming.

English Translation of Prayer For King Jonathan (Tefillah li-Shlomo shel Yonatan ha-Melekh)

4Q448
Courtesy of the Israel Antiquities Authority (2)

    Column A

1.  Praise the Lord, a Psalm [of
2.  You loved as a fa[ther(?)
3.  you ruled over [
4.  vacat [
5.  and your foes were afraid (or: will fear) [
6.  ...the heaven [
7.  and to the depths of the sea [
8.  and upon those who glorify him [
9.  the humble from the hand of adversaries [
10. Zion for his habitation, ch[ooses

    Column C                             Column B
1.  because you love Isr[ael         1.  holy city
2.  in the day and until evening [   2.  for king Jonathan
3.  to approach, to be [             3.  and all the 
                                         congregation
                                         of your people
4.  Remember them for blessing [     4.  Israel
5.  on your name, which is called [  5.  who are in the four
6.  kingdom to be blessed [          6.  winds of heaven
7.  ]for the day of war [            7.  peace be (for) all
8.  to King Jonathan [               8.  and upon your kingdom
9.                                   9.  your name be blessed

Transcription and translation by E. Eshel, H. Eshel, and A. Yardeni

Leviticus

Va-Yikrah

11Q1(PaleoLev)
Parchment 
Copied late second century -  early first century B.C.E.
Height 10.9 cm (4 1/4 in.), length 100.2 cm (39 1/2 in.)
Courtesy of the Israel Antiquities Authority (4)

This scroll was discovered in 1956, when a group of Ta`amireh Bedouin happened on Cave 11, but it was first unrolled fourteen years later, at the Israel Museum in Jerusalem. Inscribed in the scroll are parts of the final chapters (22-27) of Leviticus, the third book in the Pentateuch, which expounds laws of sacrifice, atonement, and holiness. This is the lowermost portion (approximately one-fifth of the original height) of the final six columns of the original manuscript. Eighteen small fragments also belong to this scroll. The additional fragments of this manuscript are from preceding chapters: Lev. 4, 10, 11, 13, 14, 16, 18-22.

The Leviticus Scroll was written in an ancient Hebrew script often referred to as paleo-Hebrew. The almost uniform direction of the downstrokes, sloping to the left, indicates an experienced, rapid, and rhythmic hand of a single scribe. The text was penned on the grain side of a sheep skin. Both vertical and horizontal lines were drawn. The vertical lines aligned the columns and margins; the horizontal lines served as guidelines from which the scribe suspended his letters. Dots served as word-spacers.

Reference: Freedman, D. N., and K. A. Mathews. The Paleo-Hebrew Leviticus Scroll. Winona Lake, Indiana, 1985.

English Translation of Leviticus (Va-Yikrah)

11Q1(PaleoLev)
Courtesy of the Israel Antiquities Authority (4)

Lev. 23:22-29

(22)[...edges of your field, or] gather [the gleanings of your harvest; you shall leave them for the poor and the stranger; I the LO]RD [am]
your God.
(23)The LORD spoke to Moses saying: (24)Speak to the Israelite people thus: In the seventh month
on the first day of the month, you shall observe complete rest, a sacred occasion commemorated with load blasts.
(25)You shall not work at your occupations; and you shall bring an offering by fire to the LORD.
(26)The LORD spoke to Moses saying: (27)Mark, the tenth day of this seventh month is the Day
of Atonement. It shall be a sacred occasion for you: you shall practice self-denial, and you shall bring an offering
by fire to the LORD; (28)you shall do no work throughout that day. For
[it is a Day of Atonement on which] expiation is made on your behalf [before the LO]RD your God. (29)Indeed, any person who

Translation from "Tanakh," p. 192. Philadelphia, 1985.

Songs of the Sabbath Sacrifice

Shirot `Olat ha-Shabbat

4Q403(ShirShabbd)
Parchment
Copied mid-first century B.C.E.
Height 18 cm (7 in.), length 19 cm (7 1/2 in.)
Courtesy of the Israel Antiquities Authority (9)

The Songs of the Sabbath Sacrifice, also known as the "Angelic Liturgy," is a liturgical work composed of thirteen separate sections, one for each of the first thirteen Sabbaths of the year. The songs evoke angelic praise and elaborate on angelic priesthood, the heavenly temple, and the Sabbath worship in that temple.

The headings of the various songs may reflect the solar calendar. Although the songs bear no explicit indication of their source, the phraseology and terminology of the texts are very similar to those of other Qumran works.

Eight manuscripts of this work were found in Qumran Cave 4 (4Q400 through 407) and one in Cave 11, dating from the late Hasmonean and Herodian periods. One manuscript of the Songs of the Sabbath Sacrifice was found at Masada, a Zealot fortress.

References: Newsom, Carol. Songs of the Sabbath Sacrifice: A Critical Edition. Atlanta, 1985. This is the definitive translation and analysis of these distinctive hymns.; Strugnell, J. "The Angelic Liturgy at Qumran--4QSerek Sirot `Olat Hassabbat." In Congress Volume, Oxford 1959. Supplements to Vetus Testamentum, vol. 7, pp. 318-45. Leiden, 1960.

English Translation of Songs of the Sabbath Sacrifice (Shirot `Olat ha-Shabbat)

4Q403(ShirShabbd)
Courtesy of the Israel Antiquities Authority (9)

30.  By the instructor.  Song of the sacrifice of the seventh
     Sabbath on the sixteenth of the month. Praise the God of
     the lofty heights, O you lofty ones among all the
     
31.  elim of knowledge. Let the holiest of the godlike ones
     sanctify the King of glory who sanctifies by holiness
     all His holy ones. O you chiefs of the praises of
     
32.  all the godlike beings, praise the splendidly
     [pr]aiseworthy God. For in the splendor of praise
     is the glory of His realm. From it (comes) the praises 
     of all

33.  the godlike ones together with the splendor of all [His]
     maj[esty. And] exalt his exaltedness to exalted heaven,
     you most godlike ones of the lofty elim,
     and (exalt) His  glorious divinity above

34.  all the lofty heights. For H[e is God of gods] of all
     the chiefs of the heights of heaven and King
     of ki[ngs] of all the eternal councils.
     (by the intention of)

35.  (His knowledge) At the words of His mouth come into
     being [all the lofty angels]; at the utterance
     of His lips all the eternal spirits; [by the in]tention
     of His knowledge all His creatures
     
36.  in their undertakings. Sing with joy, you who rejoice
     [in His knowledge with] rejoicing among the wondrous
     godlike beings. And chant His glory with the
     tongue of all who chant with knowledge;
     and (chant) His wonderful songs of joy

37.  with the mouth of all who chant [of Him. For He is]
     God of all who rejoice {in knowledge}
     forever and Judge in His  power of all the 
     spirits of understanding.

Transcription and translation by C. Newsom

Damascus Document

Brit Damesek

4Q271(Df)
Parchment
Copied late first century B.C.E. 
Height 10.9 cm (4 1/4 in.), length 9.3 cm (3 5/8 in.)
Courtesy of the Israel Antiquities Authority (1)

The Damascus Document is a collection of rules and instructions reflecting the practices of a sectarian community. It includes two elements. The first is an admonition that implores the congregation to remain faithful to the covenant of those who retreated from Judea to the "Land of Damascus." The second lists statutes dealing with vows and oaths, the tribunal, witnesses and judges, purification of water, Sabbath laws, and ritual cleanliness. The right-hand margin is incomplete. The left-hand margin was sewn to another piece of parchment, as evidenced by the remaining stitches.

In 1896, noted Talmud scholar and educator Solomon Schechter discovered sectarian compositions which later were found to be medieval versions of the Damascus Document. Schechter's find in a synagogue storeroom near Cairo, almost fifty years before the Qumran discoveries, may be regarded as the true starting point of modern scroll research.

References: Baumgarten, J. "The Laws of the Damascus Document in Current Research." In The Damascus Document Reconsidered. Edited by M. Broshi. Jerusalem, 1992. Written by Baltimore Hebrew University scholar Joseph Baumgarten, this 1992 imprint includes an analysis of the Damascus Document and its relation to Jewish Law, or halakhah.; Rabin, C. The Zadokite Documents. Oxford, 1958.; Schechter, S. Fragments of a Zadokite Work: Documents of Jewish Sectaries, vol. 1. Cambridge, England, 1910.

English Translation of Damascus Document (Brit Damesek)

4Q271(Df)
Courtesy of the Israel Antiquities Authority (1)

...with money...
...[his means did not] suffice to [return it to him] and the year [for redemption approaches?]...
...and may God release him? from his sins. Let not [ ] in one, for
it is an abomination....And concerning what he said (Lev. 25:14), ["When you sell
anything to or buy anything from] your neighbor, you shall not defraud one another," this is the expli[cation...
...] everything that he knows that is found...
...and he knows that he is wronging him, whether it concerns man or beast. And if
[a man gives his daughter to another ma]n, let him disclose all her blemishes to him, lest he bring upon himself the judgement
[of the curse which is said (Deut. 27:18)] (of the one) that "makes the blind to wander out of the way." Moreover, he should not give her to one unfit for her, for
[that is Kila'yim, (plowing with) o]x and ass and wearing wool and linen together. Let no man bring
[a woman into the holy] who has had sexual experience, whether she had such experience
[in the home] of her father or as a widow who had intercourse after she was widowed. And any woman
[upon whom] there is a bad name in her maidenhood in her father's home, let no man take her, except
[upon examination] by reliable [women] who have clear knowledge, by command of the Supervisor over
[the Many. After]ward he may take her, and when he takes her he shall act in accordance with the law ...and he shall not tell...
[ ] L [ ]

Transcription and translation by J. Baumgarten

The War Rule

Serekh ha-Milhamah

4Q285 (SM)
Parchment
Copied early first century C.E.
Height 4 cm (1 1/2 in.), length 5 cm (2 in.)
Courtesy of the Israel Antiquities Authority (12)

This six-line fragment, commonly referred to as the "Pierced Messiah" text, is written in a Herodian script of the first half of the first century C.E. and refers to a Messiah from the Branch of David, to a judgement, and to a killing.

Hebrew is comprised primarily of consonants; vowels must be supplied by the reader. The appropriate vowels depend on the context. Thus, the text (line 4) may be translated as "and the Prince of the Congregation, the Branch of David, will kill him," or alternately read as "and they killed the Prince." Because of the second reading, the text was dubbed the "Pierced Messiah." The transcription and translation presented here support the "killing Messiah" interpretation, alluding to a triumphant Messiah (Isaiah 11:4).

In September 1992, "Time Magazine" published an article on the War Rule fragment displayed here (object no. 12) exploring the differing interpretations. A "piercing messiah" reading would support the traditional Jewish view of a triumphant messiah. If, on the other hand, the fragment were interpreted as speaking of a "pierced messiah," it would anticipate the New Testament view of the preordained death of the messiah. The scholarly basis for these differing interpretations--but not their theological ramifications--are reviewed in "A Pierced or Piercing Messiah?"

References: Vermes, G. "The Oxford Forum for Qumran Research: Seminar on the Rule of the War from Cave 4 (4Q285)," Journal of Jewish Studies 43 (Spring 1992):85-90.; Richard N. Ostling Is Jesus in the Dead Sea Scrolls? Time (September 21, 1992) Unbound serial. Hebraic Section, African and Middle Eastern Division, Library of Congress.; James D. Tabor A Pierced or Piercing Messiah? -- The Verdict is Still Out Biblical Archaeology Review 18 (November - December 1992) Unbound serial. Hebraic Section, African and Middle Eastern Division, Library of Congress.

English Translation of The War Rule (Serekh ha-Milhamah)

4Q285 (SM)
Courtesy of the Israel Antiquities Authority (12)

]Isaiah the prophet: [The thickets of the forest] will be cut [down
with an axe and Lebanon by a majestic one will f]all. And there shall come forth a shoot from the stump of Jesse [
] the Branch of David and they will enter into judgement with [
] and the Prince of the Congregation, the Bran[ch of David] will kill him [
by stroke]s and by wounds. And a Priest [of renown (?)] will command [
the s]lai[n] of the Kitti[m]

Transcription and translation by G. Vermes

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