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GASTROSCOPE The gastroscope - to inspect the interior of the stomach - was first developed by an assistant of Adolf Kussmaul (1822-1902), who employed a sword-swallower to swallow a half-metre of pipe with a lamp and lenses(1). In 1882, Mikulicz devised his version - with angled and rigid tube with mirrors(2). The problem with the rigid gastroscope was that it was prone to soreness or injury(3). Although gastroscopy could help in diagnosis, it was of little help when the patient visited the doctor too late - for example, as many as 80% of those with advanced cancer of the stomach consulted the doctor when their condition had reached the point where the tumour was inoperable(4). refs 1. Porter,R. The Greatest Benefits to Mankind. Fontana Press. 1999. 2. Lloyd,WEB. A Hundred Years of Medicine. Paperduck. 1971. 3. Porter,R. The Greatest Benefits to Mankind. Fonatna Press. 1999. 4. Lloyd,WEB. A Hundred Years of Medicine. Paperduck. 1971. |
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RECTOSCOPE Howard Kelly, at the Johns Hopkins Hospital in America, created a rectoscope in 1895, which was soon adapted by gynaecologists to explore the abdomen(1). ref 1. Porter,R. The Greatest Benefits to Mankind. Fontana Press. 1999. |
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CYSTOSCOPE In 1877, Max Nutze - a surgeon in Vienna, Austria - developed the first cystoscope - to view the lining of the bladder, by means of a system of lenses in a tube with a platinum wire loop at the tip heated by a current irrigated with cold water to avoid damage to the bladder. Makers in Vienna improved on the instrument by adapting the electric light, which was invented in 1879(1). By the 1890s, the cystoscope made it possible to examine all parts of the interior of the bladder(2). Alexander Bremner - also of Vienna - devised his cystoscope - to examine the relative condition of the kidneys. he used his instrument in 1888 and succeeded in catheterizing the ureters - the tubes which conduct urine from the kidneys into the bladder - of a woman. In 1893, John Brown - at Johns Hopkins Hospital, Baltimore, USA, modified Bremner`s cystoscope for use in male patients. The improved cytoscopic methods enabled surgeons to undertake operations for many kidney diseases(2). refs 1. Rudlow,JM. Surgery - An Illustrated History. Mosby Year Book Inc. 1993. 2. Lloyd,WEB. A Hundred Years of Medicine. Paperduck. 1971. |
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LARYNGOSCOPE In 1806, Bozzini developed a method for examining the body cavity by means of an angled spectrum - but it did not prove popular. Over 20 years later, in 1823, the Eddington described his "glothiscope" - a three-bladed device with a stainless steel mirror and a tongue extractor(1). The first laryngoscope was made in 1855, by Manuel Garcia - a Spanish singing teacher, living in London(2). Shortly after, Turk used sunlight as a means of illumination for his instrument to make indirect exploration - but due to technical difficulties he abandoned the technique. Nepomuk Czermak of the University of Pest (now part of Budapest, Hungary) took up Turk`s equipment - using artificial light. In the 1890s, Gustav Killian of Berlin, Germany, developed a direct laryngoscope, which was modified by Lynch and was popularized in the US. Meanwhile, Sir Morrell Mackenzie became interested in Czermak`s instrument and redesigned the laryngeal mirror(3). Chevealier Jackson, a specialist in diseases of the ear, nose and throat, had seen a laryngoscope in Morrell`s clinic and - to treat strictures of the larynx in children - adapted this type of instrument for the purpose(4). ref 1. Kazi,R. Docasia website: www.docasia.com/docasia/content/Contributions/contributions9.htm 2. Porter,R. The Greatest Benefit to Mankind. Fontana Press. 1999. 3. Kazi,R. Docasia website: www.docasia.com/docasia/content/Contributions/contributions9.htm 4. Beddow-Bayley,M. Clinical Medical Discoveries. NAVS. 1961
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BRONCHOSCOPE The first to make an exploration of the bronci was Gustav Killian in 1895(9) and two years later, used the instrument and forceps to successfully remove a splinter of bone from the right bronchus of a farmer(1). In 1904, Chevelier Jackson designed his bronchoscope - lit from the distal end and with a right-handed handle. He used his instrument at his clinic in Pittsburg - and of the children, who were close to death when he treated them, 95% recovered(11). 1. webiste: www.szabist.edu.pk/bronchology/p4.html 2. American Academy of Otolaryngology website: www.entnet.org/museum/exhibits/contributions_1900_1908.cfm |
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MICROSCOPE In 1595, two Dutch lens grinders, Hans and Sacharias Janssen constructed an instrument with a magnification of 10X. It is believed that this was the first microscope(1). In 1610, Galileo, in Italy, adapted the telescope to view small objects(2). A three-lens configuration was built by Robert Hooke(1627-91) which he first used during studies of a sample of cork. However, this was inferior to the microscope invented by Leeweonhoek(3). Antoini van Leeuwenhoek, a draper of Delft, Holland, ground simple bi-convex lenses and mounted them between two metal plates. He improved on his own design and constructed over 400 microscopes- with a magnification of 200X(4). Thanks to his own invention, van Leeuwenhoek was able to see protozoa in rain water (see "Germ Theory" - elsewhere on this site) Many other types of microscope followed. In 1926, H Bursch used magnetic coil as a lens for the first time - leading to the electron microscope. Seven years later, in 1933, E Ruska took the first images with the elctron microscope - pictures of gold and copper surfaces. Initially the magnification with the electron microscope was only 17X - ie less than that of the Jansenns` microscope of 1595. Ruska continued to work on the electron microscope and was able to construct one which exceeded the 200 nanometer optical limit(5). refs 1. The IN VSEE Project. Arizona State University. website: http://invsee.asu.edu/nmodules/sizescalesmod/ 2. Margotta,R. Hamlyn History of Medicine. Hamlyn. 1996. 3. The IN VSEE Project. Arizona State University. website: http://invsee.asu.edu/nmodules/sizescalesmod/ 4. Margotta,R. Hamyln History of Medicine. Hamlyn. 1996. 5. The IN VSEE Project. Arizona State University. website: http://invsee.asu.edu/nmodules/sizescalesmod/ |
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STETHOSCOPE In 1819, French physician, Laennec wanted to listen to the heart of a large-chested woman. In order to preserve her dignity and save her from embarressment, he rolled up a piece of paper into a trumpt-like cone and placed that on the woman`s chest(1). Ten years later, in 1828, Williams introduced the first biaural stethoscope, to which flexible tubes were added in 1851 by Cammann(1). refs 1. Beddow-Bayley,M. Clinical Medical Discoveries. NAVS. 1961. |
c. Scientific Anti-Vivisectionism
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