Nakfa

* Tomas Mebrahtu visited Eritrea earlier this year, reconnecting with members of his immediate and extended family, also gaining an appreciation for dynamic developments related to his homeland's past, present, and future. Comments may be sent to mebrahtu@seas.upenn.edu. This four-part series of articles is dedicated, in loving memory, to Mulu Woldekiros. For more on Mulu, refer to a wonderful Tribute to Mulu by Veronica T. Kflu (Dehai Retreat, 2002).

History of Eritrea

Early history

Evidence of pre-humans has been discovered in the Buia region of Eritrea. The discovery may be one of the oldest ever found, and is similar to the famous "Lucy" find. Evidence of human presence begins in the 8th millennium B.C., beginning with Pygmoid, Nilotic, Cushitic (the Afar) and Semitic (Tigrinya) peoples. In the sixth century B.C., Arabs spread to the coast of present day Eritrea, in search of ivory and slaves for trade with Persia and India. Their language evolved into Ge'ez, related to today's Amhara, still spoken by Christian priests in Eritrea and Ethiopia.

Ancient rock paintings - Eritrea

Ancient rock paintings

During the 3rd and 4th century AD, Eritrea was part of the kingdom of Axum which spread from Meroe in Sudan right across the Red Sea to Yemen. The capital of Axum was in the highlands of Tigray (now a province in Ethiopia), and the main port was at Adulis which is now called Zula in Eritrea. This Kingdom was based upon trade across the Red Sea and was founded by Semitic people originally from Arabia. Christianity was the predominant faith of Axum introduced through contact with traders throughout the region.

By the 6th century AD the Persian Empire expanded and with it went the expansion of Islam. In 710 AD Muslims destroyed Adulis and the ancient kingdom of Axum declined until it was reduced to a small Christian Enclave. For the next few centuries, the region settled into being a remote, isolated community only re-emerging by the early 16th century as Abyssinia. The Abyssinian Kingdom covered the Ethiopian highlands ruled by kings and peopled by Christian Tigrinyans and remaining fairly isolated. The community had little or no contact with the lowlands of the region which was home to predominantly Muslim communities.

This period in Eritrea's history is highly contentious. Ethiopians claimed Eritrea had been an integral part of historic Ethiopia but though there are some common practices and religious beliefs between Eritreans and Ethiopia, these ties do not extend throughout Ethiopia. In fact, large parts of Eritrea, it would seem, were linked to other empires. The Ottoman Empire and Egypt had relations with the northern and eastern part of the country, and various Sudanic Empires to the west and north-west have had their influence.

19th century expansion

Abyssinia was subject to the expansionism of the Egyptians and some European powers (French, Italian and British). In the early parts of the century, Ali Pasha invaded Sudan and gradually pushed on the Western Lowlands of present-day Eritrea. By mid-century, European interest in the area was increasing. The British had a consulate in Massawa, and the French already had a presence. Italian missionaries were established in Keren.

Painting of Dejazmach Hailu, governor of Hamasien in the Asmara

Painting of Dejazmach Hailu, governor of Hamasien in the Asmara
region, armed with a long, sickle shaped sword, shotel. Dejazmach
Hailu held office during the reign of Emperor Tewodros II (1855-68)

Emperor Tewodros II, who ruled Abyssinia from 1855-68, also had to deal with rebel forces in Tigray and Shoa, who chose Ras Kassa as their ruler. Tewodros was defeated in 1868 after the British General Sir Robert Napier had landed in Zula to release the Consul and other prisoners held by the emperor. After Tewodros's defeat, Ras Kassa was crowned Emperor Yohannes IV in 1872. Yohannes's forces won a significant battle against the Egyptians at Gura in 1875. From this victory, Yohannes' foremost General, Ras Alula, became governor of the province of Hamasien and prince of Eritrea.

Italian influence

The first Italian mission in Abyssinia was at Adua in 1840, under Father Giuseppe Sapeto. He was the vehicle through which the Italian government brought up pieces of land near Assab, initially on behalf of the national Rubattino Shipping Company. But as the European 'Scramble for Africa' gathered pace, the Italian government took over the land in 1882 and began to administer it directly. They also ousted the Egyptians from Massawa on the coast. However, expansion further inland soon led to clashes with Emperor Yohannes. In 1887, Ras Alula's forces inflicted a heavy defeat on the Italians at Dogali, forcing them to retreat.

This was a significant victory for Yohannes, who was also facing a number of other threats on different fronts at the same time - not only the Italians, but the Dervishes and Menelik, an increasingly disloyal general. Yohannes was eventually killed after being captured in battle against the Dervishes at Galabat. Following his death, Ras Alula withdrew to Tigray. This allowed Menelik to be named Yohannes successor in 1889 with substantial Italian backing, instead of the natural heir, Ras Mangasha.

Negus Menelik at the battle of Adwa

Negus Menelik at the battle of Adwa
(painting of Paul Buffet, 1898)

The Italians then moved rapidly, taking Keren in July 1889 and Asmara one month later. Melenik had signed the Treaty of Uccialli with the Italians the same year, detailing the areas each controlled. Just four years later, Melenik renounced the treaty over a dispute arising from further Italian expansionist attempts. After more military clashes and in the face of sizable Italian reinforcements, Melenik signed a peace treaty. Italy then began establishing colonial rule in the areas it controlled.

Colonial rule

The Italians initially used a system of indirect rule through local chiefs at the beginning of the 20th century. The first decade or so concentrated on expropriation of land from indigenous owners. The colonial power also embarked on the construction of the railway from Massawa to Asmara in 1909. Fascist rule in the 1920s and the spirit of 'Pax Italiana' gave a significant boost to the number of Italians in Eritrea, adding further to loss of land by the local population.

In 1935, Italy succeeded in over-running Abyssinia, and decreed that Eritrea, Italian Somali-land and Abyssinia were to be known as Italian East Africa. The development of regional transport links at this time round Asmara, Assab and Addis produced a rapid but short-lived economic boom.

However, there began to be clashes between Italian and British forces in 1940. Under General Platt, the British captured Agordat in 1941, Taking Keren and Asmara later that year. As Britain did not have the capacity to take over the full running of the territory, they left some Italian officials in place. One of the most significant changes under the British was the lifting of the color bar which the Italians had operated. Eritreans could now legally be employed as civil servants. In 1944, with the changing fortunes in world war II, Britain withdrew resources from Eritrea. The postwar years and economic recession led to comparatively high levels of urban unemployment and unrest.

Ethiopian rule

When the British withdrew, the fate of Eritrea was left in the balance. It was known that the British favored partition - the north and west of Eritrea to Sudan, The rest to Ethiopia, which suited Haile Selassie. After initial presentations on the possible future of Eritrea, in 1949 the UN established a Commission of Inquiry with the task of finding out what Eritreans wanted for their own future. For a number of reasons, countries represented on the Commission could not agree on recommendations. The eventual decision to federate Eritrea with Ethiopia in 1950 reflected the strategic interests of Western Powers, particularly the United States. The US Secretary of State, John Foster Dulles, put this succinctly in 1952:

'From the point of view of justice, the opinions of the Eritrean people must receive consideration. Nevertheless the strategic interests of the United States in the Red Sea basin and considerations of security and world peace make it necessary that the country has to be linked with our ally, Ethiopia.'

Eritrean Autonomous Region 1952-1962

At the same time Ethiopia had been strengthening its ties with the United States, even sending troops to fight with the Americans in the Korean War in 1950. In December that year, the UN finally declared Eritrea an autonomous unit federated to Ethiopia and hence turned Eritrea over to its most brutal and oppressive ruler to date: Ethiopia. Haile Selassie saw to it that the first three governors of the federated unit were related to him. Ethiopia began to violate and undermine the federal arrangement. Eritrean political parties were banned. The agreed Eritrean share of customs and excise duty were expropriated. Eritrean newspapers were censored. In 1956, Tigrinya and Arabic were forbidden as teaching languages, and replaced with Amharic. Student protests and boycotts ensued, but were repressed. Ethiopia formally but illegally annexed Eritrea in 1962.

For the next 30 years, Eritrea's plight was virtually ignored by the international community. Frustration at the lack of room for political manoeuvre finally resulted in the launch of the armed struggle.

1961 - 1977 From guerrilla to an army

In the first decade, attacks by ELF guerrillas were answered by Ethiopian reprisals, often directed against any civilian population. Ethiopian forces burned villages, sometimes massacring hundreds of villagers. Waves of refugees began to pour into Sudan. As a result the sympathy that might once have existed among some sectors of the population for a close relationship with Ethiopia rapidly disappeared.

The period 1970 to 1974, when the ELF and the newly-emerged EPLF fought a civil war, is a bleak period in Eritrea's history. This ended when the revolution in Ethiopia made it imperative for the fronts to hold a common position to confront any proposals that might come from Addis. By this time the EPLF was establishing itself as a powerful force. During 1974/75 it further strengthened itself by successfully recruiting Eritreans with military training from the Ethiopian police force in Eritrea, and from Eritrean commando units which it had successfully defeated. A large influx of young people joined the EPLF after 56 students were garroted with electric cable in Asmara in January 1975.

By mid 1976, began the launching of the 'Peasant Army' offensive against Eritrea. The Eritrean guerrilla forces (estimated to number 20,000) managed to win considerable victories against the occupying Ethiopians. The EPLF laid siege to Nacfa in September 1976. In 1977 the took Karora, Afabet, Elaberet, Keren and Decemhare. They also surrounded Asmara, Eritrea's capital and organized the escape of 1,000 political prisoners from Asmara's jail. The ELF took Tessenei, Agordat and Mendefera. By the end of 1977 mainland Massawa was in the hands of the EPLF, which now had captured tanks and armored vehicles. They were close to final victory in early 1978, but had not planned on the Soviet Union's crucial intervention in the form of military aid for Mengistu's regime in Ethiopia.

Flag of the EPLF freedom fighters

1977 - 1988 Soviet intervention

The Soviet Union intervened in December 1977. The Soviet navy, by shelling EPLF positions from their battleships, prevented the EPLF from taking the port section of Massawa. A massive airlift of Soviet tanks and other arms allowed the Ethiopian army to push back the Somali forces in the Ogaden, and by May/June 1978 these troops and heavy Armour were available for redeployment in Eritrea. In two offensives the Ethiopian army retook most of the towns held by the Eritrean fronts.

For the EPLF the return to the northern base areas was 'a strategic withdrawal'. It minimized civilian and military casualties. It also allowed the EPLF to give battle at strategic points of its choosing, to evacuate towns and to remove plant and equipment to its base area.

For the ELF the story was different. In attempting to hold territory its casualties were high. The balance of military power between the fronts had now shifted strongly towards the EPLF. Recognizing its weaker position, the ELF began in 1979 to respond to the Soviet proposals. In return for its agreement to autonomy within Ethiopia the ELF was offered the reins of government in Eritrea.

Fighting again broke out between the ELF and the EPLF. The ELF's military defeat was total. ELF fighters either changed sides or fled to Sudan, and the EPLF became the single front with a military presence in Eritrea. The EPLF successfully resisted offensives in 1982 and 1983. Its lines held and the morale and confidence of the EPLF were given massive boost while the Ethiopian army was demoralized. Its net effect was to strengthen the range of military equipment at the EPLF's disposal.

Through most of the war, Ethiopia occupied the southern part of Eritrea. The EPLF had to settle in the inhospitable northern hills towards the Sudanese border. These hills became a safe haven for the families of soldiers and the orphans and disabled. Consequently, much of the regions around Afabet and Nacfa in Sahel province became home to makeshift homes, schools, orphanages, hospitals, factories, printers, bakeries etc. in an attempt to live life as normally as possible under extraordinary conditions. Most structures were built either into the ground or in caves to avoid being bombed by Ethiopian jets. The steep narrow areas were chosen as they were the hardest for the jets to negotiate.

Female EPLF fighter - war of liberation 1961-1991

1988 - 1993 The victory

At the end of the 1980s, the Soviet Union informed Mengistu that it would not be renewing its defense and cooperation agreement. With the withdrawal of Soviet support and supplies, the Ethiopian Army's morale plummeted and the EPLF began to advance on Ethiopian positions. In 1988, the EPLF captured Afabet, headquarters of the Ethiopian Army in northeastern Eritrea, prompting the Ethiopian Army to withdraw from its garrisons in Eritrea's western lowlands. EPLF fighters then moved into position around Keren, Eritrea's second-largest city.

Stamps issued in 1988 on the occasion of the victory of Ethiopia

Series of stamps issued in 1988 on the
occasion of the victory of Ethiopia. In
the same year the Ethiopian army suffered
heavy losses on the EPLF and the TPLF!

In 1990 the EPLF had captured the strategically important port of Massawa, and they entered Asmara, now the capital of Eritrea, in 1991. The Ethiopian army under Haile Mariam Mengistu (an army officer who deposed Haile Selassie in 1974) intensified the war against Eritrea, but it was easily defeated in 1991 after Mengistu fell from power.

It was at 10:00 a.m. on May 24, 1991 that Asmara residents realized EPLF fighters had entered their city. In a spontaneous outburst of happiness and relief, Asmarinos flung open their doors and rushed into the streets to dance in jubilation, some still in their pajamas. The dancing lasted for weeks.

EPLF soldiers entering the liberated Asmara, May 1991

At a conference held in London in 1991 the Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF), who were now in control of Ethiopia having ousted Mengistu and were sympathetic to Eritrean nationalist aspirations, accepted the EPLF as the provisional government of Eritrea. So began the long process towards independence and international legitimation of Eritrea as a country in its own right.

In April 1993 a referendum was held in which 1,102,410 Eritreans voted; 99.8% endorsed national independence and on May 28 Eritrea became the 182nd member of the UN. Thus it is now eligible to receive international aid to help reconstruct and develop its shattered economy. The Head of State is Issaias Afewerki, formerly secretary-general of the EPLF. The government is in the process of establishing a constitution based on a pluralist political system. Since establishing a provisional government in 1991, Eritrea has been a stable and peaceful political entity, with all political groups represented in the transitional government.

Stamp issued to celebrate
the second anniversary
of Independence

The war has had a devastating effect on Eritrea. Around 60,000 people lost their lives, there are an estimated 50,000 children with no parents and 60,000 people who have been left handicapped. However, there is now great optimism with people pulling together to rebuild the country. The 100,000 strong army (without pay) is helping with reconstruction and Eritreans who fled the during the fighting are returning with their skills.

1997 The border conflict

Following Eritrea's independence in 1993, a boundary commission had been established to cover the Yirga Triangle (Badme) and other disputed areas. In 1997, the Ethiopian authorities issued a map of the Tigrayan Administrative Region which confirmed Tigrayan expansionism. The map proved to be the end of the good relations between Eritrea and Ethiopia, and resulted in an armed conflict in August 1997 and an all-out war in May 2000, when Ethiopia occupied large parts of Eritrea. An estimated 1.1 million Eritreans have been displaced by Ethiopian aggression and an estimated 100.000 Ethiopian and 20.000 Eritrean soldiers were killed in this two year war.

On June 19th 2000 both parties agreed on a ceasefire and on December 12th 2000 a peace agreement was signed in Algiers. A 4200-strong multinational UN peacekeeping force (UNMEE) was deployed for the de-mining and demarcation of the border.

On April 13th 2002 the Permanent Court of Arbitration in The Hague published the conclusions of the Eritrea-Ethiopia Boundary Commission. The lands bordering the Yirga Triangle, areas in the Central zone and Eastern Sector and border town Tserona have been awarded to Eritrea. The border towns Zalambessa and Alitena (Central Sector) and Bure Danakil Depression) were awarded to Ethiopia.

Review map of the decisions of the EECB

Celebration of historical events
Fenkil (liberation of Massawa 1990)	mid February
Liberation Day (1991)	May 24th
Martyr's Day	June 20th
Start of Armed Struggle (1961)	September 1st

DISCOVERY CHANNEL HUNTING HOMINIDS ON ANCIANT OF ERITREA

Explore the origins of man with exn.ca

September 10, 1999

Why is a coral reef above sea level?
It seems odd to see a coral reef above the ground, but the reason for it is simple - ancient climate change. During ice ages, much of the Earth's oceans are locked up in the polar ice cap, causing sea levels to drop dramatically. In fact, says Dr. Bob Walter, a geologist at the University of Toronto, during the last two glacial periods, roughly 150,000 and 20,000 years ago, sea levels dropped as much as 130 metres below the current levels! However, during interglacial periods, like the one we are experiencing now, the sea levels rise again. Walter believes that the tool-rich coral reef in Eritrea was formed during our last interglacial period about 125,000 years ago, when sea levels would have been about six metres higher than they are today.

The Gulf of Zula on the Red Sea coast of Eritrea.

The Gulf of Zula on the Red Sea coast of Eritrea.
One of the key questions in human evolution is when and how our early ancestors migrated out of Africa. Now, a remarkable discovery of stone tools embedded in an ancient coral reef points to an answer.

"Call it the world's first oyster bar," says Canadian geologist Bob Walter. He's head of an international team that made the discovery in Eritrea. On the Red Sea coast in the Gulf of Zula, the team woke up one morning last January to find that they had camped on the surface of a 125,000-year-old coral reef, now six metres above sea level.

Mireille Guillaume, a marine biologist at the Museum of Natural History in Paris, discovered the fact during her morning 'ablutions', laughs Henrich Bruggeman, a marine biologist at the University of Asmara, Eritrea and her husband.

The ancient coral reef in Eritrea. It is 6 metres above water today because climate changes.

The ancient coral reef in Eritrea. It is 6 metres above water today because climate changes.
"The night before, we had to camp because it was dark and so we found a flat place to pitch our tents. In the morning, Mireille went out and discovered we were camping on a fossil reef platform."

But what they found embedded in the coral reef was no joke. Fossil clams, scallops, oysters and crabs. And two types of stone tools! They are the earliest evidence of humans living near a marine environment - perhaps where our ancestors first learned to eat seafood.

"We think that whoever was using these tools was using them to harvest marine food resources, like crabs, clams, oysters," says Walter.

The discovery suggests that our early ancestors migrated out of Africa along the Red Sea coast.

The discovery suggests that our early ancestors migrated out of Africa along the Red Sea coast.
In the rocks of the former beach near the coral reef, the team also found fossils of elephants, hippos and rhinoceros. All together, they paint a picture of what life was like 125,000 years ago.

"I'd be quite shocked if they weren't modern humans with similar skeletal structure," says Michael Chazan, an archeologist at the University of Toronto. "They would be living on the edge of a coral reef around a lagoon, and living off of shellfish and hunting animals that lived in the same area as well."

Evidence of the seashore human settlement suggests that the Red Sea coast was the migration route taken by our early ancestors to enter the Near East and into the Old World. The fossil record shows that anatomically modern humans left Africa about 100,000 years ago - just 25,000 years after they lived on the coast of Africa.

"Once early humans adapted to this environment, it would have been natural for them - over many generations - to expand their presence along the coast," explains Walter.

Shellfish embedded in the coral reef.

Shellfish embedded in the coral reef.
But while the find provides a possible answer to the key question of when and how we migrated out of Africa, it also raises a lot of other intriguing questions.

The team found two main types of stone tools. "We're finding these acheulean hand axes again, which is very interesting because it's very, very young to find them. Most people had thought that the industry had died out by 300,000 to 200,000 years ago," says Walter. The team also found an abundance of obsidian tools, which are tools made from volcanic glass. "They were really fresh, not eroded by weather and wind and so on," describes Bruggeman.

An obsidian tool.

An obsidian tool.
But as Chazan explains, obsidian tools are usually associated with much later periods, and most commonly used with the origins of agriculture about 7,000 or 6,000 BC.

"Part of the surprise with Eritrea is that everywhere that I've usually seen obsidian is with much later periods and it's rather surprising in a paleolithic context," says Chazan. "And it's even more surprising when there are handaxes right next door to them - and even more surprising yet, when they're stuck into the backs of reefs in the marine context."

Perhaps even more surprises await in northeast African country of Eritrea, which is turning out to be a treasure trove of ancient relics. The team is only in the middle of this scientific exploration.

"As research here continues, I believe Eritrea will yield many more secrets about how modern humans evolved and migrated out of Africa," says Walter.

Walter has brought back some samples of the coral reef to date it radiometrically - to prove it is indeed 125,000 years old. He plans to publish all his findings in scientific journals next year and to make many more field trips to Eritrea to continue with his research.

All images of the discovery are courtesy Bob Walter and Gail Smithwalter.

For more pictures of the discoveries in Eritrea, check out the Slideshow.

This is the last story of our special 5-part series on human origins.

Story by:
Gloria Chang

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I did my palaeoanthropology degree some time ago, ... Helena

The complete Hunting Hominids series

Monday, September 6	Where the bones are Canadian geologist Bob Walter has found thousands of hand axes in the badlands of Eritrea. Who were the toolmakers? Part 1 of a 5-part series on one of the richest paleolithic archeological sites in the world. Read this story on *exn.ca*. This story also aired on @discovery.ca.
Tuesday, September 7	'Hand Axe Hill' Why were so many hand axes - thousands - in one place? How is a hand axe made? Part 2 of a 5-part series on one of the richest Paleolithic archaeological sites in the world. Read this story on *exn.ca*. This story also aired on @discovery.ca.
Wednesday, September 8	'Pleistocene Park' Flowing rivers and lush green forests. Crocodiles, turtles, antelope, hippos, rhinos, elephants and horses. This was life in the badlands of Eritrea one million years ago. Part 3 of a 5-part series. Read this story on *exn.ca*. This story also aired on @discovery.ca.
Thursday, September 9	The Dating Game When did we take the leap from ape to two-legged walking hominids? When did we grow large brains, use language? When did Homo sapiens evolve and migrate out of Africa? It all depends on accurate fossil dating techniques. Part 4 of a 5-part series. Read this story on *exn.ca*. This story also aired on @discovery.ca.
Friday, September 10	Out of Africa Call it the world's first oyster bar. Bob Walter has discovered the oldest evidence of stone tools near a marine environment. At 125,000 years old, the find suggests our human ancestors migrated out of Africa north along the Red Sea coast. Part 5 of 5. Read this story on *exn.ca*. This story also aired on @discovery.ca.

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The History of the past centuries!

History of Eritrea

Early history

19th century expansion

Italian influence

Colonial rule

Ethiopian rule

1961 - 1977 From guerrilla to an army

1977 - 1988 Soviet intervention

1988 - 1993 The victory

1997 The border conflict

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