These are some of the essentials I believe are necessary and should be followed when writing. There are probably more but these are important and the ones that publishers find most violated.
Adverbs:
Adverbs (words ending in “ly”) are used too often. Adverbs are necessary but must be used sparing-ly. When used too often, a reader will think the writer lacks creativity in word choice or is lazy. The best way to avoid over using adverbs is to restructure or rephrase a sentence using different words. How could I have written the sentence, “Adverbs are necessary but must be used sparingly?” Maybe this: “Of course, we need adverbs, but they must be used with caution. The same thought is conveyed but without using any –ly words.
Word confusion:
The following words are often interchanged (and visa versa) in error:
Passed for past, there for their, no for know, where for were, fair for fare, further for farther, weather for whether, you for your, your for you’re, lead for led, red for read, wait for weight, light for lite, site for sight, wait for weight, to for two or too, for for four, who for whom, and yes, even write for right. Most spell-checker programs won’t pick up on these words because the spelling is actually correct. Writers should be aware of these mistakes when reading, rereading, and editing their manuscripts.
All right is correct, but alright is not always correct. It is best to remember that all right is always correct in any reference.
How about OK (all caps) (never Ok)? Best is okay. Either OK or okay is correct but most publishers prefer okay. Whatever, choose only one way per novel or story and spell it the same way throughout the novel or story.
How about mamma or mama? Again, either is correct, but be sure to choose one and use it consistently.
Viewpoint of Characters (VPC):
Never have more than one VPC per paragraph. This is one of the biggest mistake writers make. In writing novels, unlike short stories, there are a few options that are acceptable when changing the viewpoint of characters. You can change the VPC per chapter. This is often used in young adult novels but is popular in adult novels too. Paul James used this choice in “Melody of the Eagle.” The VPC can also change with a scene break. This was used by Jane Dews and P. Elizabeth Collins in their novels “
Silent thoughts, italics, bold print, and underlining:
Mainstream thoughts (not dialog or monologue) are not to be used in quotation marks or italicized anymore. Although most writing guidelines still teach using italics for indicating a character’s thoughts, today, the narrative is accepted as the thought process of the VPC. To execute this otherwise is not acceptable in today’s market (Maybe it has something to do with digital printing process and cost-cutting). It is really up to the individual publisher’s guidelines, which you should follow.
Italics, underlining, and bold print are not really punctuation but useful textual effects that can be used conventionally in a variety of situations. Before computerized word-processing was available, writers would underline certain terms in handwritten or manually typed pages, and the underlining would be replaced by italics in the published version. However, with the advent of computers, writers tend to over use italics, especially when attempting to transition from one character’s point of view to another, expressing a character’s silent thoughts, and in many instances where a simple explanation of the transportation of a thought would suffice and even make more sense.
Italics have taken the place of both underlining and capitalizing in almost every instance, but they should be used with caution. Over use of italics in long sentences and paragraphs is boring and can cause confusion in the reader. However, all that said, don’t dispense entirely with using italics. They can be an effective writing tool in many circumstances. Here are a few of the most common and practical uses for italics.
Use italics when you require emphasis to be placed on a word. Such as, "She was more than noteworthy, she was brilliant.” (‘brilliant’ would be in italics).
Use italics when the word is an unfamiliar foreign word. Such as, “Wearing blue jeans is de rigueur for most college students.” (‘de rigueur’ would be in italics).
Use italics when the word is a key term or a technical term that will be further explained or defined. (Only italicize the term the first time it is used.)
To involve your readers, find an alternative to italics except in the noted cases above. Of course, that will involve some thinking. It means slapping your hand every time you are on your computer and your hand tries to hit 'CTRL' and 'i' or going up to the word processing tool bar and highlighting the ‘I’. It means sitting there a bit longer and staring at the computer screen. It means playing around with sentence structure and layout. It means choosing words more carefully so your readers can 'hear' the emphasis right where you want them to hear it.
Again, pay attention to your publisher’s guidelines. If your publisher wants you to write your entire book in italics, well, do it. You do want your manuscript published, don’t you?
Run-on sentences:
Consider this example: “At the DMV, where I went to register my car, a black Ford Mustang convertible, the clerk took my money and thanked me.” Not only is that sentence a run-on but could be condensed so as to read much better. Like: “Upon registering my black Ford Mustang convertible at the DMV, the clerk took payment and thanked me.” The reader can figure out that it was “my” money.
Word redundancy:
Beware of redundancy. Example: “I thought to myself.” That is really redundant. Yet, when a story is written in first-person, authors use that all the time. People use it in everyday speech but when writing, “to myself” is redundant.
Dialogue exchanges:
Dialogue exchanges often don’t make much sense. Example: Jane Doe walked into the room where her husband John was. “You’re being silly,” she laughed, as he made faces at himself in the mirror.
What doesn’t make sense about that? How can anyone speak words when they are laughing? You can get around that by writing this: Jane Doe walked into the room where her husband was looking in the mirror. “You’re being silly,” she said, laughing as he made faces at himself in the mirror. A person can talk and then laugh but they can’t laugh and talk at the same time.
The ellipsis:
Although an ellipsis at the end of a broken sentence is not incorrect, most publishers prefer a double-hyphen or an Em dash. Most word processors change a double-hyphen to an Em dash automatically. An Em dash is simply a single dash about twice as long as a hyphen. An ellipsis is better used in mid-sentence as an afterthought or pause. The proper format for an ellipsis is: word … word; a space on both sides of the three dots is correct.
Grammar:
Simply put, if you don’t understand the grammar basics of the language in which you write, you shouldn’t be writing. I know that is hard to take, but incorrect grammar in writing is one of the prime reasons manuscripts are rejected by publishers. Another reason is that the manuscript simply has no reader appeal.
Verbs:
A verb is a word that asserts something concerning a person, place or thing. Alone or together with other words it may form the predicate of a sentence, such as “go” or “run.” A group of words which performs this office is called a verb phrase, such as “may do” and “might have been seen.”
A weak (or regular) verb is a verb which forms its past and past participle by adding “ed”, “d”, or “t” to the present. Example: Present, fill; past, filled, and past participle, filled.
A strong (or irregular) verb is a verb which forms its past and past participle by changing the stem vowel of the present tense without adding any ending (Whew!). Example: Present, sing; past, sang; past participle, sung.
A transitive verb expresses action and usually needs to be followed by some noun or pronoun in order to complete its meaning. This noun or pronoun is the direct object of the verb. Example: The boy learned his lesson.
An intransitive verb cannot have a direct object. Example: The boy came to school on his bicycle.
An auxiliary verb is a verb that helps another verb to assert action. The most common auxiliary verbs are be, have, do, shall, will, may, might, should, etc. Example: The lesson is (or was) well learned. The pupils have gone home. I shall go to the concert tonight.
A copulative verb is a verb which connects an attribute (all other verbs) or predicate term with the subject: as, “God is good,” “The apple seems mellow.” Be is the usual copulative verb; but seem, become, and a few other verbs are similarly used.
A defective verb is a verb which lacks many of the usual verb forms. Example: Ought, must, and most auxiliaries.
An impersonal verb is a verb which has no definite subject. It usually stands as the subject. Example: It rains. It seems.
More on adverbs: As if there wasn't enough already.
An adverb is a word which modifies the meaning of a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. The most common kinds of adverbs are those of time, place, manner, and degree. Adverbs of time, place, and manner usually modify verbs while adverbs of degree usually modify adjectives or other adverbs. Examples: The books are now on the shelves (time). There is the man you want (place). The ship sailed slowly away (manner). This apple is very large (degree).
Yeah, I know, that is probably about as clear as smoke, but careful application of verbs and their derivatives, and adverbs, can produce very expository and descriptive writings. Don’t be afraid to use them.
Word choice:
One example of an incorrect use of a word is “freedom.” Many people use freedom in the plural, as in “freedoms.” For example; “We are losing our freedoms.” Freedom is a singular noun; it has no plural. Freedom is a state of being, the state of being free. This state of freedom consists of individual and collective liberties. Therefore, as an example, one would properly write, “With the loss of each of our liberties, we come closer to losing our freedom.”
Another example of improper word choice involves the use of relative pronouns. A relative pronoun refers to some noun or pronoun called an antecedent, and connects the clause introduced by the relative with that antecedent. The most common relative pronouns are, who, whom, whoever, which, whichever, what, whatever, and that. The relative pronouns, who, whom, and whoever relate to persons; which, whichever, what, and whatever relate to things; and that relates to either persons or things (but be careful). Who, whom, and that are most often used improperly. When in doubt as to when to use who or that, always use who in referring to people and that when referring to animals or things.
Examples:
Correct: General George S. Patton, who was a famous warrior, was also the author of many poems. Incorrect: General Patton was a famous warrior that (should be who) was also the author of many poems.
Correct: Water, which is composed of oxygen and hydrogen, is necessary to life. Incorrect: Water that is composed of oxygen and hydrogen is necessary to life.
Correct: The book that you want to read is on the table. Incorrect: The person that you invited to the party has arrived.
Who, whom, which, and what, when used to ask questions, are called interrogative pronouns. Examples: Who is there? Which will you have? What do you want? To whom do you wish to speak?
An adjective pronoun is a pronoun which can be used as an adjective. The most important adjective pronouns, this, that, these, and those, are called demonstrative pronouns because they point out. They are also the only demonstrative pronouns in the English language. Certain other adjective pronouns are called numeral pronouns. “Each” is a distributive pronoun. Examples: “This” is my book. “Those” are my apples. “Many” are called, but “few” are chosen.” “Each” debater was honest in his views.
If you think you are having problems with nouns, pronouns, adjectives, and their relatives, you should have a professional editor edit your manuscript before submitting it to a publisher. Again, be careful. While some publisher provide a cursory editing service many such editors are not very good with grammar, spelling, and punctuation, and they often over look improper use of pronouns and their derivatives. That is understandable since the primary responsibility for editing a manuscript belongs with the author.
The ABCs of good writing:
A – Accuracy
B – Brevity
C – Clarity
Accuracy:
Cordell Hull was an extremely cautious speaker, striving always for scientific accuracy. One day on a train a friend pointed to a flock of sheep grazing in a field. “Look. Those sheep have just been sheared,” the friend remarked.
Brevity:
George Bernard Shaw once received an invitation from a celebrity hunter who was always trying to get celebrities to come to her home: “Lady X will be at home Thursday between four and six.”
Shaw returned the card; underneath, he had written, “Mr. Bernard Shaw likewise.”
“There are four requisites to a good short story,” explained an English teacher to the class, “Brevity, a reference to religion, some association with royalty, and an illustration of modesty. Now, with these four things in mind, I will give you thirty minutes to write a story.”
Ten minutes later the hand of
Clarity:
“To be able to ask a question clearly is two-thirds of the way to getting it answered.” – John Ruskin.
Punctuation: The comma, a pause that refreshes:
In the earliest printed books the words followed one another without anything to indicate the separation of thoughts or parts of thoughts. It is easy to see how inconvenient and often misleading this practice must have been. Gradually there came into use certain marks to indicate pauses in a writer’s thought; but since these were often used at individual writer’s discretion, the results were unsatisfactory. Today, many writers are still having difficulty with commas. Some use them too much, some don’t use them enough, and still others use them inappropriately. There are even those who claim that commas don’t really matter.
Writers should never overlook the value of the comma. If you really want to be expository in writing and speaking, you will find that the comma is a very valuable tool. Some people avoid using commas and claim they are over used and not really necessary for expressing a complete thought, which a complete sentence is (or should be). Most such claims come from people who don’t understand the proper use of commas. Some even wish commas would just go away. However, people who must function at a high level in their native language and within their society understand that commas, when placed appropriately within sentences, enable readers and listeners to comprehend complete thoughts expressed by speakers and writers. Commas, therefore, are simply expressions of pauses when people are speaking and indicators of pauses when writing.
The value of commas is that they give clarifying pauses between auxiliary thoughts that are required to support a complete sentence, especially a compound sentence where each part of the sentence must be clearly understood as a necessary and integral part of the whole thought being expressed through a complete sentence.
Don’t be afraid of commas. Proper use of commas by good speakers or writers indicates that they are also excellent communicators.
Usage of punctuation varies more in the case of the comma than in that of any other mark of punctuation, so that in many instances the rules are not rigidly binding. The tendency among the best writers seems to be to use no more commas than are necessary to make the meaning clear. However, the following rules are generally followed by writers who have a full grasp on English grammar and punctuation:
A series of pairs of words or phrases should have a comma placed after each pair.
Ex: Sink or swim, live or die, survive or perish, I give my hand and my heart to this vote.
Words or phrases which are contrasted should be separated by commas.
Ex: We live in deeds, not years.
Phrases and clauses which, by inversion, are placed at the beginning of sentences are usually followed by commas. If the phrase is a short one it is not always so set off.
Ex: Wearied by his
And: Because the doctor insisted on a change of scene, they took the patient to
But: Of his success there can be but little doubt.
Introductory words and phrases and independent adverbs should be separated from the rest of the sentence by commas.
Ex: Now, if there was one quality on which that gentleman prided himself more than on another, it was the superiority of his manners.
And: I think, also, that “The Vision of Sir Launfal” owed its success quite as much to a presentation of nature as to its misty legend.
Many parenthetical expressions are too closely connected in thought with the remainder of the sentence to be enclosed in marks of parenthesis. Such expressions should be separated from the remainder of the sentence by commas.
Ex: The vessel, you may be astonished to hear, was so long and broad and ponderous that the united force of fifty men was insufficient to shove her into the water.
And: “I am the king’s daughter,” she said to him, “and my name is Medea.”
Words or phrases in the same construction, forming a series, should e separated from each other by commas.
Ex: The sea carried men, spars, casks, planks, bulwarks, heaps of such toys, into the boiling ocean.
Note: If there are two or more words or phrases, with a conjunction between each two, no commas are needed.
Ex: We think with reverence and gratitude of their toils and sacrifices.
And: The back of the chair was curiously carved in open work, so as to represent flowers and fruit and foliage.
Note: If the last two words or phrases are not connected by a conjunction, a comma is usually placed after the series, unless what follows is a single word or a short expression very closely connected with the series.
Ex: The katydids, the grasshoppers, the crickets, make themselves heard.
And: One deep, intense, ominous silence pervades that dangerous assembly. (Close connection).
Note: If in the series the only conjunction is between the last two words, the better usage is to place a comma before the conjunction.
Ex: The Teutonic invaders belonged to three tribes: the Jutes, the Saxons, and the Angles.
Note: A comma should not be inserted after an adjective that describes or limits another adjective together with the noun following.
Ex: She wore a pair of soiled white kid gloves.
Words in apposition, with their modifiers, should be separated from the rest of the sentence by commas.
Ex: When Jason, the son of the dethroned King of Iolcus, was a little boy, he was sent away from his parents and placed under the queerest school master that ever you heard of.
Note: If one of the terms in apposition is a general title, the comma may be omitted.
Ex: Queen Artemisia built the famous Mausoleum.
And: The poet Lowell was a native of
Note: A title or a degree, following the name of a person, should be separated from the name by a comma.
Ex: Address John W. Doe, Secretary.
And: Rev. T. T. Munger, D.D., is the author of “On the Threshold.”
Note: If the pronoun is used with the noun, for emphasis or in direct address, the comma should be omitted.
Ex: Hawthorne himself could scarcely have imagined a wilder, stranger story (Emphasis).
And: “Ye men of
Nouns or phrases which are independent by direct address should be separated from the rest of the sentence by commas.
Ex: “Accursed tree!” cried the chief justice, gnashing his teeth, “would that thou hadst been left standing till Hancock,
Expressions containing the case absolute should be separated from the rest of the sentence by commas.
Ex: Peace being declared between
A relative clause which is not restrictive, but which presents an additional thought, should be separated from the rest of the sentence by commas.
Ex: The man, who proved to be an escaped convict, had in his possession one of the missing papers. (Additional thought.)
And: The man who had first spoken then arose and asked the attention of the audience (Restrictive.)
Note: If the relative pronoun is immediately followed by a word or a phrase enclosed in commas, a comma should be placed before the relative clause, whether restrictive or not.
Ex: How beautiful the long, mild twilight, which, like a silver clasp, unites today with yesterday!
Note: A restrictive relative clause should be preceded by a comma, if several words come between the relative pronoun and its antecedent.
Ex: No American could have died, who would have been more universally mourned than Longfellow.
Note: If the relative pronoun refers to each of a series of nouns, it should be separated from the series by a comma.
Ex: He had hopes, fears, and longings, which his friends could not share.
Dependent and conditional clauses, commonly introduced by such words as if, when, unless, though, should be separated from the rest of the sentence by commas, unless the connection is very close.
Ex: If youth are taught how to think, they will soon learn what to think.
And: Were all these changing beauties of form and color to disappear, how unsightly, dull, and dreary would be this world of ours!
And:
In compound sentences the coordinate clauses, if simple in construction and closely related, should be separated by commas.
Ex: Captain Hull then took a key from his pocket, I unlocked the chest, and together we lifted its ponderous lid.
In compound sentences, containing a common verb, the omission of the verb in any clause except the first should be marked by a comma.
Ex:
Short quotations, or expressions resembling quotations, should be preceded by a comma.
Ex: The proverb says, “Make haste slowly.”
And: The question now is, how shall we know when the world has ended?
Commas are like links between railroad cars; they keep the train in motion while allowing the train of thought to proceed without falling off track. Use them sparingly but judiciously.
The semicolon:
When a long sentence makes the use of commas inadequate for clearness of meaning, the following rules apply:
If the members of a compound sentence are complex in construction, or if they contain commas, they should usually be separated by semicolons.
EX: Homes is, like
Short sentences closely connected in meaning, but having no grammatical dependence upon one another, should be separated by semicolons.
EX: The blue sky now turned more softly gray; the great watch-stars shut up their holy eyes; the east began to kindle.
Note: If the sentences are short, simple in meaning, and very closely connected, they should be separated by commas.
EX: The fire burns, the water drowns, the air consumes, the earth buries.
Clauses or phrases which have a common dependence upon a general clause should be separated from one another by semicolons. If the clause upon which they all depend comes at the beginning of the sentence, they may be separated from it by a comma; if it is placed at the end of the sentence, the comma should be followed by a dash.
EX: Science declares, that no particle of matter can be destroyed; that each atom has its place in the universe; and that, in seeking that place, each obeys certain fixed laws.
“The darkening foliage; the embrowning grain; the golden-fly haunting blackberry bushes; the cawing crows, that looked down from the mountains on the cornfield, and waited day after day for the scarecrow to finish his work and depart; and the smoke of far-off burning woods that pervaded the air and hung in purple haze about the summits of the mountains, - these were the avant-couriers and attendants of the hot August.”
A clause which is added to a complete sentence by way of explanation should be preceded by a semicolon, if the clause in introduced by a conjunction.
EX: The water of the river Lethe has one very excellent quality; for a single draught of it makes people forget every care and sorrow.
The semicolon should be used before as, viz., that is, and etc., when they introduce a series of particular terms, simple in form, which are in apposition with a general term.
EX: The Greeks invented the three orders of architecture; that is, the Doric, the Ionic, and the Corinthian.
Sentences, as considered in grammar, are of three kinds; namely, simple, complex, and compound.
Their, they're, there, and its and it's:
‘Their’ is a possessive noun or pronoun. It should be preceded with a definitive noun that identifies to whom you are referring, as in; “The Eastside Grammar School in
‘They’re’ is a contraction of ‘they are’, as in; “They’re going back to school this month.” Again, ‘they’re’ should be preceded by a definitive noun, as in; “Our children are preparing their backpacks this evening because they’re (they are) going back to school tomorrow.”
‘There’ is a directional noun or pronoun and can signify either a non-specific distant place or a specific place, as in; “He threw the ball over there.” “Our troops are over there.” “There is a place called Shangri-La.” “My wife is sitting over there with her sister.”
Its: This is a possessive noun or pronoun. The s should not be preceded by an apostrophe. “The dog was limping because its leg was broken.”
It’s: This is a contraction of ‘it is.’ “It’s too late to learn grammar after you have written your book and submitted it to a publisher. Yes, it is indeed too late.”
Yes, I know there are a few exceptions to those rules but they’re not common. That’s a good thing. And yes, it’s the truth and the truth has its way of being revealed.
First-person versus third person:
Although inexperienced writers think writing in the first person is easier, it is the most difficult writing style. Even the most experienced writers stay from it because it is so challenging and doesn’t go over with the majority of readers. Plus, most publishers discourage the practice.
In first person, the word “I” tends to be overused. Writers who use first person tend begin most sentences with “I.” That is not good when an author wants to be considered as creative. Readers will often stop reading a book that is otherwise appealing when it is written in first person. That, of course, results in lower sales, the very reason most publishers frown on a first person novel unless it is otherwise perfect. Most people don’t like to listen to someone talk about their self all the time, whether or not the work is fiction or non fiction. When considering using first person, one should read other books that use that style. See if you like it and pay attention to how well the story is executed.
The meat of the issue is that good publishers are more likely to accept a third person work than a work written in first person. That is something to think about before slaving away at your computer pounding out that great American novel of the century.
In writing, you must prepare yourself with linguistic knowledge, knowledge of proper grammar, a huge vocabulary, and much reading of various materials before writing can become easy, then write several hundred words a day and make sense out of them. Like the person who goes out on the golf course without proper preparation, those who don’t prepare themselves for writing just whack at words.
So, yes, writing can be easy for those who prepare themselves. You can’t just wake up one day and say, “I’m going to write a book” and you can’t just go out to the golf course and say, “I’m going to hit the ball like Arnold Palmer.”
Practice doesn’t make perfect; only perfect practice makes perfect.
On style:
There are those who claim that proper grammar really doesn’t matter, and that a writer can break the rules of grammar in favor of “style.” Claiming to have a “style” of writing at the expense of breaking the rules of grammar tacitly suggests that the person making such statements at least knows the rules of grammar. Before a writer can knowingly break the rules of grammar, they should at least first know those rules. Those writers who know the rules yet stray from them for reason of making some literary point are very good writers; they just know when and where to break the rules. If a writer claims “style” as an excuse for not knowing the rules then let that writer cast his words before the world to be judged. I am a strong advocate of individual liberties and the free market system. A writer is free to present himself to the world in any manner he or she wishes. “Ye shall reap what ye sow.”
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