The Persians
The Persians avoided close-quarters infantry combat until their foot archers were in the front and their horse archers in flank and rear had confused and disorganised the enemy. The Persians, like most Asian armies, knew how to employ cavalry but were never able to fully co-ordinate their horsemen with their infantry.
At the battle of Thymbra in 546BC Cyrus the Persian king, badly outnumbered, formed the first recorded tactical deviation from the normal parallel order of combat. The bulk of his army formed up in depth, in five relatively short lines, their flanks covered by chariots, cavalry, his best infantry and an improvised Camel Corps, facing outward, perpendicular to the front. The Lydian army, wheeling inwards to envelop him, allowed gaps to appear at the hinges of the whelling wings. Disordered by overhead fire from the Persian archers stationed within his square formation, the Lydians had their disorganised wing smashed by Cyrus's flank units and the rout was completed by the Persian cavalry.
The Greeks
Except in the northern flatter regions of Thessaly and Macedonia, the Greeks neglected cavalry and relied on the steadily improving infantry phalanx.
In early times, Greek warare was notable for its 'Heroes' - champions who went forward and engaged their counterparts from the enemy's ranks in individual combat. That part of the battle concluded, both sides clashed together in a formless melee where each man fought for himself.
Later, the Greek formation was often a long solid line with narrow avenues fo the passage of light troops. In combat formation, the phalanx was capable of limited manoeuvres but movement over rough ground could create dangerous gaps in its ranks.
The Greek Phalanx
The general tactics of the Graeco-Persian Wars basically consisted of attempting to force the enemy to enter battle on unfavourable ground, or with only a portion of his available forces, or to out-flank him. The armies lacked that essential control which prevented the exposure of a marching flank or the creation of dangerous gaps in lines by anything other than leisured manoeuvres whilst still out of missle and melee range. Approaching each other in parallel lines, the armies formed up with the infantry in the centre and cavalry on the wings, the advance screened by clouds of slingers and bowmen who would melt away around the flanks or through narrow intervals left in the rank immediately before the main line of the opposing armies clashed together. Occasionally one side stood on the defensive whilst another attacked , otherwise about the only variation in battle order was for the cavalry and chariots to be in front of the main battle formation instead of on the flanks.
Confusion as a Greek army clashes with the Romans
The Romans
Earliest Times
Phalanx and maniple in chess-board formation, a tactical flexibility in the battle order that was a marked deviation from the soldi mas of the Greek phalanx. This flexible formation of well drilled men trained to manoeuvre reached its peak at the Battle of Llipa (206BC) when Scipio with 48,000 men decisively defeated 70,000 Carhaginians in a battle of brilliant manoeuvre.
At about 50BC the ever increasing commitments of the Roman army resulted in a lowering of the standards of recruits so reducing discipline and trainging with a subsequent lack of confidence between the commander and his troops. Tis resulted in a tendency to reduce the intervals between the maniples of the legion so that it began to resemble the old Greek phalanx in battle order. This detracted from the normal superiority of the Roman formation over those of its enemies an led to a number of Roman defeats.
The Roman Legionairre
The Marian Legion Period
Major defensive formations of the legion were the line, square and circle. When formed behind fortifications or entrenchments the line was usually a single line of ten cohorts. The square was formed from the normal three-line formation, with three cohorts facing front, three facing rear and two to each flank. Modifications of this formation and the circle were employed in defence against cavalry but if the legion's flanks were protected by friendly cavalry or light auxiliary troops, the legion preferred to face the cavalry in its normal line formation.
The Roman Army
Whenever possible the Romans tried to obtain the important advantage of being on higer ground than the enemy so adding to the range of missiles, increasing the shockeffect of a charge and reducing the physical effect of making it and also making it more difficult for the enemy to attack. To get maximum effect from the initial shock of battle, Julius Caesar usually place his best cohorts in the front line.
The Carthaginians
Formed largely of mercenaries, professional soldiers who were well drilled, trained and discipline, the Carthaginian army were a formidable force capable of manoeuvering under battle conditions.
Hannibal marches with his phalanx, and cavalry behind
This period was notable for its high standards of military leadership. Hannibal's father Hamilcar was a very good general but the son was an inspired leader with exceptional tactical and strategic skills. Whilst he may not have been the greatest general of all time, it is impossible to rank the finest leaders of history very far ahead of him. Against the most military efficient nation in the world, he led armies formed of soldiers of lesser quality with a very consideralbe degree of success. The Roman Generals Scipio, Marcellus and Nero greatly added to their stature by learning from Hannibal.
The Britons
In true barbarian style, the Ancient Britions fought courageously but without discipline and control in wild rushes made up of dense masses of warriors, lacking order or formation.
Nevertheless, the proficient manner in which the Britons used their chariots - in a wheeling, darting, hit-and-run style - indicates that they had at least a proportion of their forces under some sort of control, with some discipline and training.
Boadicea appears to have had little more than nominal control over the army she led in rebellion and their susequent strategy and tactics.
A proud British Chieftain gazes on as his men charge towards the Roman line
