Information Center. Eritrea::      Eritrean Information ERITREA Click here to see get a brief history of this country... Population Area 3,901,000 46,482 sq. mi Language Currency Arabic, Tiginya, Tigre Nafka Most Notable Attraction Ethnic Groups Old Imperial Palace Tigrinya, Tigre, Kunama Highest Point Lowest Point Mount Soira 9,885 asl Denakil Depression 360 bsl Religions Type of Government Islam 50% Christianity 50% Intransition Links Maps Atlas Maps Landform Map 1 Landform Map 2 Landform Map 3 Current Events Current Time Travel Tourism Pictures The Land and People Flag Eritrean Flag Information Links The People Articles All About Eritrea Eritrea     Background: Eritrea was awarded to Ethiopia in 1952 as part of a federation. Ethiopia's annexation of Eritrea as a province 10 years later sparked a 30-year struggle for independence that ended in 1991 with Eritrean rebels defeating governmental forces; independence was overwhelmingly approved in a 1993 referendum. A two and a half year border war with Ethiopia that erupted in 1998 ended under UN auspices on 12 December 2000.     See also : Alternative Maps Eritrea Paper Currency Eritrea Historical Area: total:  121,320 sq km land:  121,320 sq km water:  0 sq km Some maps show a sub-division of 6 Provinces Government type: transitional government note:  following a successful referendum on independence for the Autonomous Region of Eritrea on 23-25 April 1993, a National Assembly, composed entirely of the People's Front for Democracy and Justice or PFDJ, was established as a transitional legislature; a Constitutional Commission was also established to draft a constitution; ISAIAS Afworki was elected president by the transitional legislature; the constitution, ratified in May 1997, did not enter into effect, pending parliamentary and presidential elections; parliamentary elections have now been scheduled to take place in December 2001 Capital: Asmara (formerly Asmera) Administrative divisions: 8 provinces (singular - awraja); Akale Guzay, Barka, Denkel, Hamasen, Sahil, Semhar, Senhit, Seraye note:  in May 1995 the National Assembly adopted a resolution stating that the administrative structure of Eritrea, which had been established by former colonial powers, would consist of only six provinces when the new constitution, then being drafted, became effective in 1997; the new provinces, the names of which had not been recommended by the US Board on Geographic Names for recognition by the US Government, pending acceptable definition of the boundaries, were: Anseba, Debub, Debubawi Keyih Bahri, Gash-Barka, Maakel, and Semanawi Keyih Bahri; more recently, it has been reported that these provinces have been redesignated regions and renamed Southern Red Sea, Northern Red Sea, Anseba, Gash-Barka, Southern, and Central Independence: 24 May 1993 (from Ethiopia) Province Name CoA Flag Province Name CoA Flag Akale Guzay     Sahil     Barka     Semhar     Denkel     Senhit     Hamasen     Seraye                 Alternative Maps                             Land boundaries: total:  1,630 km border countries:  Djibouti 113 km, Ethiopia 912 km, Sudan 605 km Coastline: 2,234 km total; mainland on Red Sea 1,151 km, islands in Red Sea 1,083 km Maritime claims: territorial sea:  12 NM Eritrea Paper Currency     1 Nakfa     5 Nakfa     10 Nakfa     20 Nakfa     50 Nakfa     100 Nakfa Eritrea Historical                     to Dec 1882                Dec 1882 - 5 May 1941                       5 May 1941 - 15 Sep 1952                   15 Sep 1952 - May 1993            15 Sep 1952 - 14 Nov 1962;              May 1993 - 5 Dec 1995                  Adopted 5 Dec 1995 1557/58                    Massawa part of Ottoman Empire. Dec 1813 - 1826            Ruled by Egypt (nominally part of Ottoman Empire). 1826                       Direct Ottoman rule restored. 1865 - Dec 1882            Ruled by Egypt (nominally part of Ottoman Empire). Mar 1870                   Assab administered by the Societa di Navigazione Rubattino. Dec 1882                   Port of Assab an Italian protectorate.  6 Feb 1885                Port of Massawa an Italian protectorate; expansion in the                             hinterland follows. 1888                       Italian Assab Protectorate (Assab, Massawa, and the hinterland).  1 Jan 1890                Italian colony (Eritrea).  1 Jun 1936                Part of Italian East Africa (province of Eritrea, formed by the                             merger of the colony and the Ethiopian region of Tigre)                            (see Ethiopia).  5 May 1941                British administration 19 Feb 1951                United Nations administration. 15 Sep 1952                Federated with Ethiopia under the sovereignty of the                            Ethiopian crown (Eritrean Autonomous State). 14 Nov 1962                Integral part of Ethiopia, autonomy revoked (Eritrea province                            of Ethiopia). 18 Sep 1987                Some autonomy granted. 24 May 1991                De facto independence from Ethiopia. 25 Apr 1993                Referendum endorses independence. 24 May 1993                Independence (State of Eritrea). Type your title here. In northeastern Africa, on the Red Sea. Part of ancient Ethiopia; taken over by Italian government 1882; became a colony of Italy 1890. Made a province of Ethiopia 1962; gained independence 1993. Capital is Asmara. [Source: Merriam-Webster's Geographical Dictionary] This undivided-back postcard was mailed from Asmara in the early 1900s. The Italian postage stamp is overprinted "Colonia Eritrea". Published by L. Simonetti, Torino, Italy. This map excludes part of the southeastern coastal area. ^an Old Eritreans postcard during the Italinians Colonies The Ethiopia - Eritrea border and the Italy - Ethiopia Treaty of 1902 Journey of Eritrea (foreign  visitors Info/Picture) Eritrean Culture Music The History of the past centuries! ERITREA Revelations of an Ancient Past . . . Challenges of the Present Hopes & Prospects for the Future September, 2002 Tomas Mebrahtu* Stelae at Qohaito, one of five Eritrean sites nominated for the UNESCO World Heritage List Qohaito's urban settlements date to the "Pre-Aksumite" era (1st Millenium B.C.) Photo credit: Daniel Berhane, The Eritrea Multimedia Exhibit Haile Berhe, National Museum of Eritrea, The Preservation of The Cultural Heritage of Eritrea, 10 October 2000 "…Eritrea has one of the highest densities of archaeological sites known in the African Continent … [with an] estimated 25-30,000 sites …" As mentioned in the Introduction to a four-part series I have [slowly] been in the process of writing, Part 1 - Revelations of an Ancient Past - touches upon historical facets of the Eritrean experience. Off and on, over the past decade or so, many of us have followed in the popular media about pioneering work that is re-defining Eritrea's place in ancient history and archaeology, and the search for man's early habitat along the Red Sea Coast. It turns out, the groundbreaking archaeological finds, while still undergoing rigorous debate by specialists, appear destined to transform our understanding of social & cultural development in the Horn of Africa. So, what's all the fuss about? For some time, historians have been convinced that Eritrea is an 'archaeological goldmine', well positioned to provide unique insights into the following important, but so far, not fully resolved questions: How & why did humanity's common ancestors migrate out of Africa, resulting in today's global mosaic of peoples & cultures? What region(s) will ultimately lay [documented] claim to the mysterious "Land of Punt"? Genesis of [Pre-] Aksumite Civilization - An Evolving Story, with an Indigenous Twist? In this article, I attempt to summarize some of the recent and fascinating revelations that will someday fill in the gaps in history books describing our part of the world. A search for answers to questions on my mind, inspired by a January 2002 visit with Yoseph Libsekal and staff at the National Museum of Eritrea in Asmara, has taken me on a captivating journey into the history of my troubled homeland and region, the Horn of Africa. As a part-time student of history, I've always believed one has to grounded on a sound understanding of past events - ancient as well as recent - as a basis for placing into proper context the complex problems and challenges faced by our modern-day societies. The painful, yet rich, shared experiences of Eritrea, Ethiopia and the Greater Horn of Africa are no exception. My journey into the past, superficial as it may seem, helps me maintain cautious optimism for the future, tempered with a sober analysis of the present. After all, the history of Africa's Horn has been simultaneously filled with glamour and adversity; modest feasts followed by droughts and deadly famines, and vice versa; glorious victories, only to be diluted by dismal failures. It's a region that is home to the most temperate, and the harshest of climates. It has been the playground for cruel emperors, feudal, marxist-communist and religious fanatics alike. Decent, spiritual peoples - Muslims, Copts, and practitioners of other faiths and beliefs - live amongst those who forcefully try to impose on others alien value-systems, be they the 'Lord's Resistance Army' or Jihadists. Armed with nothing but justice and Maoist-inspired tactics, heroic and fierce freedom fighters - women and men - made history, only to be counter-balanced by brutal, power- and greed-driven insurgencies or dictatorships. Dictators of all stripes have ruled here, aligned to the East or the West during the Cold War. Most oppressed, some even butchered their own people. It's also home to the Nile - aptly referred to by some as the River of Gods - which gave birth to Ancient Egypt and Nubia. Its battlegrounds were witness to the defeat of a European colonial army at the Battle of Adwa in 1896. All took notice, rightly so. An African people had proudly resisted the 'Scramble for Africa', thereby becoming an inspiring symbol to the colonized worldwide. Ironically, instead of a great African nation-state, a colonial empire - Greater Ethiopia - arose instead, successfully emulating the Euro-colonialists, in search of power, prestige, and regional hegemony. Most of all, the Horn of Africa is home to betrayed innocents, numbering in the scores of millions - living at the mercy of some of the worst governments Africa and the World have ever seen - and in recent times, mainly fed by the West, UN and supra-government NGOs. At times, the region was blessed with progressive governments, seemingly capable of angelic miracles, albeit unsustainable. Or was it mere flashes of brilliance? It's also a region that, at other times, appears cursed by the Almighty (him) self. Witness the droughts, following the 4-year, brutal, senseless, and inhuman 'border' war, which brought nothing but misery to the multitudes in Eritrea and Ethiopia. Decades of refuge and exile, followed by repatriation during peace times. Sadly, the repatriated are sometimes subject, for a second time or more, to war-displacement and life in refuge or exile. The disasters are aplenty, but it wasn't always meant to be so. The Horn of Africa is, after all, intimately linked with the birthplace of mankind. The region is capable, at the same time, of representing the best and worst in humanity: The Horn of Extremes? OK, enough of present-day lamentations, for the nostalgic journey back in time begins shortly. The first leg begins many years ago, in East Africa's savannahs, and later, the lowlands along the Southern Red Sea Coast of Africa. The local adventurers were not Djiboutian, Eritrean, Ethiopian, Kenyan, Somali, Sudanese, or Ugandan. They were the ancestors of all of mankind. "Out of Africa": Yes, but How? On Seafood & Beach Migration: The 'Real Eve' Discovered? C. Stringer, "Coasting out of Africa", Nature, Vol. 405, 4 May 2000, p.24-27. "It is now generally accepted that Africa is the ancestral homeland of modern humans, Homo sapiens. But the timing of human dispersal from Africa, and the routes taken, remain controversial." R. C. Walter et al., "Early human occupation of the Red Sea coast of Eritrea during the last interglacial", Nature, Vol. 405, 4 May 2000, p.65-69. "The artifacts [hand axes, obsidian stone tools, shellfish] from the Abdur Reef Limestone [Gulf of Zula] are in the right geographical location and of the right age to suggest that the route out of Africa was along the coast of Eritrea." In support of the "Out of Africa" model, a 1987 scientific paper (Cann et al.) presented genetic evidence that, when coupled with fossil records, solidified Africa's claim to be our collective, ancestral homeland. The authors argued that unique patterns of mitochondrial DNA - passed on from mother to daughter - can be used to trace our genetic lineage as well dispersal patterns across the globe. The theory's logical conclusion suggests all of humanity can trace family roots back to a single woman in Eastern Africa, The Real Eve, highlighted in a recent, discovery.com interactive on-line program. In the companion video documentary, Seife Berhe, geologist and co-author of the landmark Nature report, explains some of the details behind the oldest coastal settlement yet found, a fossilized coral reef in Eritrea, aptly nicknamed "The World's 1st Oyster Bar". The implications are not small; in fact, it's just the opposite. If more settlements of various ages can be discovered along the coasts of Africa and around the world, it will help fill in the timelines of global human migration. For now, the first successful trip out of Africa appears to be via Eritrea, across the Red Sea into Yemen, many years after a Beach Party, 125,000 B.C. Experts speculate the journey was triggered by a search for food - fish, scallops, oysters and clams - in areas expected to be better for sea-harvesting. Along the way, humans adapted as needed, leading to today's global mosaic of peoples and cultures: Middle Eastern, Asian, Australian, European, and American. The rest is history, as they say. Land of Punt: Horn of Africa Courts Ancient Egypt The Unsolved Mystery of the "Southern Red Sea Countries" (3rd - 1st Millenium B.C.) Ancient Egypt is considered by some to be peer-less among the World's Great Civilizations. Besides trading with an immediate neighbor-rival, Nubia, Egypt's Pharoahs periodically organized several southern expeditions to another contemporary culture called the Land of Punt. It is from this little-known land that Egypt was able to obtain supplies of myrrh, incense, precious stones, minerals, and other exotic materials. The best-documented trade mission was commissioned by Queen Hatshepsut during 15th century B.C. Although the location of Punt has has yet to be verified, Africa's southern Red Sea region appears to be the leading candidate. Jacke Phillips, "Punt and Aksum: Egypt and the Horn of Africa", Journal of African History, vol. 37, 1997, p. 423 - 457. "… no archaeological remains have ever been identified, even tentatively as 'Puntite'. Punt exists, for us, only in the Egyptian records; even the name we use is taken directly from the Egyptian name PWNT. These sources have given us a general idea of where Punt was located, what it was like, and the period of its existence (generally, c. 2500 to ?600 B.C.) … Punt has never been identified with certainty. The textual records that have survived, when their information is pooled, provide us with enough information to suggest strongly a generalized area within the eastern coastal regions of the modern Sudan south of modern Port Sudan, Eritrea and northern-most Ethiopia, or somewhere further inland …" Others (e.g. Fattovich) generally support the above summary regarding the lack of knowledge of Punt and its imprecise location(s). Direct archaeological evidence will ultimately shed some light on this mystery, but it's not unreasonable to expect that ancient Eritrean ports and/or settlements will figure prominently in the Puntite ruins and artifacts that will be uncovered, sooner or later. In the meantime, until historians and archaeologists sort out the final answers, tour operators and travel guides will have the liberty to lure adventurous travelers to many nations that lay claim to what the Egyptians called God's Land or Punt. What appears clear is that Eritrea has as a good a case as any among the contending "Southern Red Sea Countries". Interestingly, in terms of their relationship to Ancient Egypt, Phillips treats Punt, Aksum and the not so well-understood intervening period [D'MT, C-Group, Kerma, Ona, Pre-Aksumite, etc.], as successive cultures. An appropriate lead-in to the next leg of our journey… Genesis of Aksum Civilization: Punt, D'MT, Ona, Pre-Aksumites and Ancient Asmara? An Evolving Story Along the Red Sea (2st Millenium B.C. - 1st Millenium A.D.) Source: National Geographic, Keepers of The Faith - The Living Legacy of Aksum, July 2001 The ancient Kindgom of Aksum is well-known as one of the earliest Christian states as well as for its accomplishments in architecture, ceramics, coinage, the development of a unique Ge'ez language and civilization, and domination of Red Sea trade for several centuries in 1st Millennium A.D. (Munro-Hay). However, a complete understanding of its origins is still lacking. It is only recently that Africanists are making headway in challenging the "Out of Africa" premise for the rise of this complex culture, i.e. South Arabian immigrants and colonizers from Saba (Yemen) were the genius behind the establishment of Aksum, and all of its accomplishments. The roles of indigenous, African societies were either minimized, or altogether ignored. Sound familiar to the debates on the origins of Ancient Egypt? It turns out, that new discoveries of urban settlements in the plateaus of Asmara, dated to 800 B.C., are set to radically revise the existing interpretation of Aksumite and Pre-Aksumite culture, emphasizing the indigenous component, literally changing the "face of history" (photos available at shaebia.org). In light of these discoveries and "physical continuities in the Southern Red Sea Area", Curtis concludes that "The Pre-Aksumite settlements and contemporaneous Sabean settlements of the southern Arabian Peninsula are best viewed as co-evolving". Who exactly were the Pre-Aksumites anyway? The search for answers, and ensuing scholarly debates, will surely continue for some time. Peter R. Schmidt, Matthew C. Curtis, Urban precursors in the Horn: early 1st-millenium BC communities in Eritrea", Antiquity, vol. 75, 2001, p. 849-859. "Research in the greater Asmara area shows that we cannot substantiate earlier ideas that the highlands of Eritrea owed their cultural genesis and their urban development to interactions with the South Arabian Peninsula. Comparison of the latter ceramic traditions with the ceramics of the Ona culture suggests that the communities around Asmara were endogeneous." "this monument … those who created… … for the sake of their fathers …" Ge'ez Inscription on Stele at Matara, Eritrea, Nominated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site Matara sites date back to the Pre-Aksumite era in the 1st Millenium B.C. Sources: Y. Kobashchanov, "AXUM", PSU Press, J. W. Michels, (Ed.) 1979; E. Littmann, "The Monuments of Aksum : An Illustrated Account", AAU Press, D. W. Phillipson (Ed.), 1997. Yoseph Libsekal examines a 'border' war victim Destroyed Stele at Matara, Eritrea (2001) Photo credit: Richard Greenfield, shaebia.org Other 'border' war victims (1998 - 2002): Killed: 100,000+ War-Displaced: 1 - 2 million Wounded / Maimed: Number unknown Final POWs set for release Aug-Sept 2002: 2,000 Briefly, on Islamic Civilization, Italianate Art Deco, and Beyond… Five Centuries of Ottoman-Egyptian-Italian-British-Ethiopian Occupation & Colonization The decline of Adulis (5th century) was later followed in kind by Aksum, a few centuries later, co-inciding with the spread of Islamic Civilization across North & East Africa. As a result, many parts of modern-day Eritrea were ruled by various kingdoms and sultanates. As celebrated in the Eritrean Development Foundation 2003 Calendar, in support of the Cultural Assets Rehabilitation Project, the Red Sea island of Dahlak Kebir was home to "a 10th - 15th century necropolis with over 800 tombs that carry Qufic (ancient Arabic) inscriptions…". They would be contemporary with medieval Coptic monasteries in the highlands of Eritrea and Ethiopia. Occupation of Eritrea's strategic Red Sea coast formally began in 16th century, triggering almost five centuries of foreign rule. Before departing, the Ottomans would leave behind exquisite architecture - 500-year old mosques, palaces, urban dwellings - in the port city of Massawa. The Italians, while creating infrastructure to support a settler colony, also built towns and city neighborhoods that have so far been preserved, being architecturally unique to lands beyond Italy. The time of the Egyptians and the British was more brief and less remarkable, thereby leaving less of an imprint. As for Ethiopian rule - both imperial and communist - for now, the less said, the better. After all, it's been a terribly dysfunctional relationship in the past century. Liberation would finally come on May 24, 1991, after a bloody 30-year armed struggle for independence from illegal annexation by His Imperial Majesty or H.I.M. - Ethiopia's Lord of Lords and King of Kings, Emperor Haile Selassie I - in violation of a UN-mandated Federation (1952 - 1962). At least 65,000 Eritreans would sacrifice their lives for freedom, fighting against the US- and later Soviet-supplied Ethiopian Army, at the time, the largest in Black Africa. The Organization of African Unity elected not to interfere, and left the 'internal' matter to H.I.M. and later, to Ethiopia's notorious killer-dictator, Colonel Mengistu Hailemariam, now in comfortable exile in Zimbabwe, having cashed in a debt for Ethiopia's admirable support for anti-colonial struggles in southern Africa. So ironic… It can be said, like many subjugated peoples worldwide, Eritrea's colonial experiences, and its just struggle for freedom, helped cement a strong, national identity. Notwithstanding a glorious past and rich pre-history shared with neighbors, including Ethiopia, the modern State of Eritrea is clearly an artificial creation of European colonization, just like all African nations. Hence, the 19,000 lives that were recently sacrificed in order to uphold the colonial treaties of 1900, 1902, and 1908. We suspected, it was either that or be erased off the map, again. Hopefully, time will reveal the whole truth behind the recent, multi-billion dollar, Eritrea-Ethiopia 'border' war. Fast forward … Parts 2 and 3 partially rely on David Pool's on-the-mark analysis - From Guerrillas to Government: The Eritrean People's Liberation Front, 2001, Ohio University Press - as a basis for rationalizing the current mess we're in, and where we might be headed as a newly born (infant) nation. It appears to be one of those bad news (Part 2), good news (Part 3) situations. To be continued … please be patient, for the tortoise and the camel seem to personify my pace. Part 2 - Challenges of the Present Part 3 - Hopes & Prospects for the Future * Tomas Mebrahtu visited Eritrea earlier this year, reconnecting with members of his immediate and extended family, also gaining an appreciation for dynamic developments related to his homeland's past, present, and future. Comments may be sent to mebrahtu@seas.upenn.edu. This four-part series of articles is dedicated, in loving memory, to Mulu Woldekiros. For more on Mulu, refer to a wonderful Tribute to Mulu by Veronica T. Kflu (Dehai Retreat, 2002). Cited References / Sources BBC News Africa, "'Oldest' [Sub-Saharan] African settlement found in Eritrea", May 21, 2002. H. Berhe, National Museum of Eritrea," The Preservation of The Cultural Heritage of Eritrea", AFRICA 2009 - Documentation and Inventory Seminar, Livingstone, Zambia, 10 October 2000. R. L. Cann et al., "Mitochondrial DNA and Human Evolution", Nature, 325 (1987), p. 31-36. J. Chamot, "Beach Party, 125,000 B.C.", Geotimes, July 2000, M. C. Curtis, "Cultural exchange across the Red Sea and the development of ancient complex societies in the northern Horn of Africa in the first millennium BCE: a call for multiscalar and interdisciplinary perspective", submitted to "Cultural Exchange and Transformation in the Indian Ocean World Conference", Los Angeles, California, 5 - 6 April, 2002. S. Dahlgren, "Matara (Metera): Major Eritrean Aksumite & Pre-Aksumite City & Archaeological Site", Discovery Channel, The Real Eve R. Greenfield, "New discoveries in Africa change face of history", New African, November 2001; article with photos: R. Fattovich, "The development of urbanism in the northern Horn of Africa in ancient and medieval times", published in proceedings of Urban Origins in Eastern Africa Conference, Mombasa, Kenya, 1993. R. Fattovich, "The Near East and Eastern Africa: Their Interaction" and "Northeastern African States", in "Encyclopedia of African History: Archaeology, History, Languages, Cultures, and Environments", J. O. Vogel (Ed.), Altamira Press, 1997. Y. Kobashchanov, "AXUM", Pennsylvania State University Press, J. W. Michels, (Ed.) 1979. E. Littmann, "The Monuments of Aksum : An Illustrated Account", Addis Ababa University Press, D. W. Phillipson (Ed.), 1997. Lonely Planet, Eritrea C. S. Millard, National Geographic, Keepers of The Faith - The Living Legacy of Aksum, July 2001 S. Munro-Hay, "Aksum: An African Civilization of Late Antiquity", Edinburgh University Press, 1991. J. Phillips, "Punt and Aksum: Egypt and the Horn of Africa", Journal of African History, 37 (1997), p. 423-457. P. R. Schmidt, M. C. Curtis, "Urban precursors in the Horn: early 1st-millenium BC communities in Eritrea", Antiquity, 75 (2001), p. 849-859. C. Stringer, "Coasting out of Africa", Nature, 405 (2000), p. 24-27. R. C. Walter et al., "Early human occupation of the Red Sea coast of Eritrea during the last interglacial", Nature, 405 (2000), p. 65-69. History of Eritrea Early history Evidence of pre-humans has been discovered in the Buia region of Eritrea. The discovery may be one of the oldest ever found, and is similar to the famous "Lucy" find. Evidence of human presence begins in the 8th millennium B.C., beginning with Pygmoid, Nilotic, Cushitic (the Afar) and Semitic (Tigrinya) peoples. In the sixth century B.C., Arabs spread to the coast of present day Eritrea, in search of ivory and slaves for trade with Persia and India. Their language evolved into Ge'ez, related to today's Amhara, still spoken by Christian priests in Eritrea and Ethiopia. Ancient rock paintings During the 3rd and 4th century AD, Eritrea was part of the kingdom of Axum which spread from Meroe in Sudan right across the Red Sea to Yemen. The capital of Axum was in the highlands of Tigray (now a province in Ethiopia), and the main port was at Adulis which is now called Zula in Eritrea. This Kingdom was based upon trade across the Red Sea and was founded by Semitic people originally from Arabia. Christianity was the predominant faith of Axum introduced through contact with traders throughout the region. By the 6th century AD the Persian Empire expanded and with it went the expansion of Islam. In 710 AD Muslims destroyed Adulis and the ancient kingdom of Axum declined until it was reduced to a small Christian Enclave. For the next few centuries, the region settled into being a remote, isolated community only re-emerging by the early 16th century as Abyssinia. The Abyssinian Kingdom covered the Ethiopian highlands ruled by kings and peopled by Christian Tigrinyans and remaining fairly isolated. The community had little or no contact with the lowlands of the region which was home to predominantly Muslim communities. This period in Eritrea's history is highly contentious. Ethiopians claimed Eritrea had been an integral part of historic Ethiopia but though there are some common practices and religious beliefs between Eritreans and Ethiopia, these ties do not extend throughout Ethiopia. In fact, large parts of Eritrea, it would seem, were linked to other empires. The Ottoman Empire and Egypt had relations with the northern and eastern part of the country, and various Sudanic Empires to the west and north-west have had their influence. 19th century expansion Abyssinia was subject to the expansionism of the Egyptians and some European powers (French, Italian and British). In the early parts of the century, Ali Pasha invaded Sudan and gradually pushed on the Western Lowlands of present-day Eritrea. By mid-century, European interest in the area was increasing. The British had a consulate in Massawa, and the French already had a presence. Italian missionaries were established in Keren. Painting of Dejazmach Hailu, governor of Hamasien in the Asmara region, armed with a long, sickle shaped sword, shotel. Dejazmach Hailu held office during the reign of Emperor Tewodros II (1855-68) Emperor Tewodros II, who ruled Abyssinia from 1855-68, also had to deal with rebel forces in Tigray and Shoa, who chose Ras Kassa as their ruler. Tewodros was defeated in 1868 after the British General Sir Robert Napier had landed in Zula to release the Consul and other prisoners held by the emperor. After Tewodros's defeat, Ras Kassa was crowned Emperor Yohannes IV in 1872. Yohannes's forces won a significant battle against the Egyptians at Gura in 1875. From this victory, Yohannes' foremost General, Ras Alula, became governor of the province of Hamasien and prince of Eritrea. Italian influence The first Italian mission in Abyssinia was at Adua in 1840, under Father Giuseppe Sapeto. He was the vehicle through which the Italian government brought up pieces of land near Assab, initially on behalf of the national Rubattino Shipping Company. But as the European 'Scramble for Africa' gathered pace, the Italian government took over the land in 1882 and began to administer it directly. They also ousted the Egyptians from Massawa on the coast. However, expansion further inland soon led to clashes with Emperor Yohannes. In 1887, Ras Alula's forces inflicted a heavy defeat on the Italians at Dogali, forcing them to retreat. This was a significant victory for Yohannes, who was also facing a number of other threats on different fronts at the same time - not only the Italians, but the Dervishes and Menelik, an increasingly disloyal general. Yohannes was eventually killed after being captured in battle against the Dervishes at Galabat. Following his death, Ras Alula withdrew to Tigray. This allowed Menelik to be named Yohannes successor in 1889 with substantial Italian backing, instead of the natural heir, Ras Mangasha. Negus Menelik at the battle of Adwa (painting of Paul Buffet, 1898) The Italians then moved rapidly, taking Keren in July 1889 and Asmara one month later. Melenik had signed the Treaty of Uccialli with the Italians the same year, detailing the areas each controlled. Just four years later, Melenik renounced the treaty over a dispute arising from further Italian expansionist attempts. After more military clashes and in the face of sizable Italian reinforcements, Melenik signed a peace treaty. Italy then began establishing colonial rule in the areas it controlled. Colonial rule The Italians initially used a system of indirect rule through local chiefs at the beginning of the 20th century. The first decade or so concentrated on expropriation of land from indigenous owners. The colonial power also embarked on the construction of the railway from Massawa to Asmara in 1909. Fascist rule in the 1920s and the spirit of 'Pax Italiana' gave a significant boost to the number of Italians in Eritrea, adding further to loss of land by the local population. In 1935, Italy succeeded in over-running Abyssinia, and decreed that Eritrea, Italian Somali-land and Abyssinia were to be known as Italian East Africa. The development of regional transport links at this time round Asmara, Assab and Addis produced a rapid but short-lived economic boom. However, there began to be clashes between Italian and British forces in 1940. Under General Platt, the British captured Agordat in 1941, Taking Keren and Asmara later that year. As Britain did not have the capacity to take over the full running of the territory, they left some Italian officials in place. One of the most significant changes under the British was the lifting of the color bar which the Italians had operated. Eritreans could now legally be employed as civil servants. In 1944, with the changing fortunes in world war II, Britain withdrew resources from Eritrea. The postwar years and economic recession led to comparatively high levels of urban unemployment and unrest. Ethiopian rule When the British withdrew, the fate of Eritrea was left in the balance. It was known that the British favored partition - the north and west of Eritrea to Sudan, The rest to Ethiopia, which suited Haile Selassie. After initial presentations on the possible future of Eritrea, in 1949 the UN established a Commission of Inquiry with the task of finding out what Eritreans wanted for their own future. For a number of reasons, countries represented on the Commission could not agree on recommendations. The eventual decision to federate Eritrea with Ethiopia in 1950 reflected the strategic interests of Western Powers, particularly the United States. The US Secretary of State, John Foster Dulles, put this succinctly in 1952: 'From the point of view of justice, the opinions of the Eritrean people must receive consideration. Nevertheless the strategic interests of the United States in the Red Sea basin and considerations of security and world peace make it necessary that the country has to be linked with our ally, Ethiopia.' Eritrean Autonomous Region 1952-1962 At the same time Ethiopia had been strengthening its ties with the United States, even sending troops to fight with the Americans in the Korean War in 1950. In December that year, the UN finally declared Eritrea an autonomous unit federated to Ethiopia and hence turned Eritrea over to its most brutal and oppressive ruler to date: Ethiopia. Haile Selassie saw to it that the first three governors of the federated unit were related to him. Ethiopia began to violate and undermine the federal arrangement. Eritrean political parties were banned. The agreed Eritrean share of customs and excise duty were expropriated. Eritrean newspapers were censored. In 1956, Tigrinya and Arabic were forbidden as teaching languages, and replaced with Amharic. Student protests and boycotts ensued, but were repressed. Ethiopia formally but illegally annexed Eritrea in 1962. For the next 30 years, Eritrea's plight was virtually ignored by the international community. Frustration at the lack of room for political manoeuvre finally resulted in the launch of the armed struggle. 1961 - 1977 From guerrilla to an army In the first decade, attacks by ELF guerrillas were answered by Ethiopian reprisals, often directed against any civilian population. Ethiopian forces burned villages, sometimes massacring hundreds of villagers. Waves of refugees began to pour into Sudan. As a result the sympathy that might once have existed among some sectors of the population for a close relationship with Ethiopia rapidly disappeared. The period 1970 to 1974, when the ELF and the newly-emerged EPLF fought a civil war, is a bleak period in Eritrea's history. This ended when the revolution in Ethiopia made it imperative for the fronts to hold a common position to confront any proposals that might come from Addis. By this time the EPLF was establishing itself as a powerful force. During 1974/75 it further strengthened itself by successfully recruiting Eritreans with military training from the Ethiopian police force in Eritrea, and from Eritrean commando units which it had successfully defeated. A large influx of young people joined the EPLF after 56 students were garroted with electric cable in Asmara in January 1975. By mid 1976, began the launching of the 'Peasant Army' offensive against Eritrea. The Eritrean guerrilla forces (estimated to number 20,000) managed to win considerable victories against the occupying Ethiopians. The EPLF laid siege to Nacfa in September 1976. In 1977 the took Karora, Afabet, Elaberet, Keren and Decemhare. They also surrounded Asmara, Eritrea's capital and organized the escape of 1,000 political prisoners from Asmara's jail. The ELF took Tessenei, Agordat and Mendefera. By the end of 1977 mainland Massawa was in the hands of the EPLF, which now had captured tanks and armored vehicles. They were close to final victory in early 1978, but had not planned on the Soviet Union's crucial intervention in the form of military aid for Mengistu's regime in Ethiopia. Flag of the EPLF freedom fighters 1977 - 1988 Soviet intervention The Soviet Union intervened in December 1977. The Soviet navy, by shelling EPLF positions from their battleships, prevented the EPLF from taking the port section of Massawa. A massive airlift of Soviet tanks and other arms allowed the Ethiopian army to push back the Somali forces in the Ogaden, and by May/June 1978 these troops and heavy Armour were available for redeployment in Eritrea. In two offensives the Ethiopian army retook most of the towns held by the Eritrean fronts. For the EPLF the return to the northern base areas was 'a strategic withdrawal'. It minimized civilian and military casualties. It also allowed the EPLF to give battle at strategic points of its choosing, to evacuate towns and to remove plant and equipment to its base area. For the ELF the story was different. In attempting to hold territory its casualties were high. The balance of military power between the fronts had now shifted strongly towards the EPLF. Recognizing its weaker position, the ELF began in 1979 to respond to the Soviet proposals. In return for its agreement to autonomy within Ethiopia the ELF was offered the reins of government in Eritrea. Fighting again broke out between the ELF and the EPLF. The ELF's military defeat was total. ELF fighters either changed sides or fled to Sudan, and the EPLF became the single front with a military presence in Eritrea. The EPLF successfully resisted offensives in 1982 and 1983. Its lines held and the morale and confidence of the EPLF were given massive boost while the Ethiopian army was demoralized. Its net effect was to strengthen the range of military equipment at the EPLF's disposal. Through most of the war, Ethiopia occupied the southern part of Eritrea. The EPLF had to settle in the inhospitable northern hills towards the Sudanese border. These hills became a safe haven for the families of soldiers and the orphans and disabled. Consequently, much of the regions around Afabet and Nacfa in Sahel province became home to makeshift homes, schools, orphanages, hospitals, factories, printers, bakeries etc. in an attempt to live life as normally as possible under extraordinary conditions. Most structures were built either into the ground or in caves to avoid being bombed by Ethiopian jets. The steep narrow areas were chosen as they were the hardest for the jets to negotiate. 1988 - 1993 The victory At the end of the 1980s, the Soviet Union informed Mengistu that it would not be renewing its defense and cooperation agreement. With the withdrawal of Soviet support and supplies, the Ethiopian Army's morale plummeted and the EPLF began to advance on Ethiopian positions. In 1988, the EPLF captured Afabet, headquarters of the Ethiopian Army in northeastern Eritrea, prompting the Ethiopian Army to withdraw from its garrisons in Eritrea's western lowlands. EPLF fighters then moved into position around Keren, Eritrea's second-largest city. Series of stamps issued in 1988 on the occasion  of  the  victory  of Ethiopia.  In the same year the Ethiopian army suffered heavy losses on the EPLF and the TPLF! In 1990 the EPLF had captured the strategically important port of Massawa, and they entered Asmara, now the capital of Eritrea, in 1991. The Ethiopian army under Haile Mariam Mengistu (an army officer who deposed Haile Selassie in 1974) intensified the war against Eritrea, but it was easily defeated in 1991 after Mengistu fell from power. It was at 10:00 a.m. on May 24, 1991 that Asmara residents realized EPLF fighters had entered their city. In a spontaneous outburst of happiness and relief, Asmarinos flung open their doors and rushed into the streets to dance in jubilation, some still in their pajamas. The dancing lasted for weeks. EPLF soldiers entering the liberated Asmara, May 1991 At a conference held in London in 1991 the Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF), who were now in control of Ethiopia having ousted Mengistu and were sympathetic to Eritrean nationalist aspirations, accepted the EPLF as the provisional government of Eritrea. So began the long process towards independence and international legitimation of Eritrea as a country in its own right. In April 1993 a referendum was held in which 1,102,410 Eritreans voted; 99.8% endorsed national independence and on May 28 Eritrea became the 182nd member of the UN. Thus it is now eligible to receive international aid to help reconstruct and develop its shattered economy. The Head of State is Issaias Afewerki, formerly secretary-general of the EPLF. The government is in the process of establishing a constitution based on a pluralist political system. Since establishing a provisional government in 1991, Eritrea has been a stable and peaceful political entity, with all political groups represented in the transitional government. Stamp issued to celebrate the second anniversary of Independence The war has had a devastating effect on Eritrea. Around 60,000 people lost their lives, there are an estimated 50,000 children with no parents and 60,000 people who have been left handicapped. However, there is now great optimism with people pulling together to rebuild the country. The 100,000 strong army (without pay) is helping with reconstruction and Eritreans who fled the during the fighting are returning with their skills. 1997 The border conflict Following Eritrea's independence in 1993, a boundary commission had been established to cover the Yirga Triangle (Badme) and other disputed areas. In 1997, the Ethiopian authorities issued a map of the Tigrayan Administrative Region which confirmed Tigrayan expansionism. The map proved to be the end of the good relations between Eritrea and Ethiopia, and resulted in an armed conflict in August 1997 and an all-out war in May 2000, when Ethiopia occupied large parts of Eritrea. An estimated 1.1 million Eritreans have been displaced by Ethiopian aggression and an estimated 100.000 Ethiopian and 20.000 Eritrean soldiers were killed in this two year war. On June 19th 2000 both parties agreed on a ceasefire and on December 12th 2000 a peace agreement was signed in Algiers. A 4200-strong multinational UN peacekeeping force (UNMEE) was deployed for the de-mining and demarcation of the border. On April 13th 2002 the Permanent Court of Arbitration in The Hague published the conclusions of the Eritrea-Ethiopia Boundary Commission. The lands bordering the Yirga Triangle, areas in the Central zone and Eastern Sector and border town Tserona have been awarded to Eritrea. The border towns  Zalambessa and Alitena (Central Sector) and Bure Danakil Depression) were awarded to Ethiopia. Review map of the decisions of the EECB     Celebration of historical events Fenkil (liberation of Massawa 1990) mid February Liberation Day (1991) May 24th Martyr's Day June 20th Start of Armed Struggle (1961) September 1st DISCOVERY CHANNEL HUNTING HOMINIDS ON ANCIANT OF ERITREA Explore the origins of man with exn.ca September 10, 1999 Why is a coral reef above sea level? It seems odd to see a coral reef above the ground, but the reason for it is simple - ancient climate change. During ice ages, much of the Earth's oceans are locked up in the polar ice cap, causing sea levels to drop dramatically. In fact, says Dr. Bob Walter, a geologist at the University of Toronto, during the last two glacial periods, roughly 150,000 and 20,000 years ago, sea levels dropped as much as 130 metres below the current levels! However, during interglacial periods, like the one we are experiencing now, the sea levels rise again. Walter believes that the tool-rich coral reef in Eritrea was formed during our last interglacial period about 125,000 years ago, when sea levels would have been about six metres higher than they are today. The Gulf of Zula on the Red Sea coast of Eritrea. One of the key questions in human evolution is when and how our early ancestors migrated out of Africa. Now, a remarkable discovery of stone tools embedded in an ancient coral reef points to an answer. "Call it the world's first oyster bar," says Canadian geologist Bob Walter. He's head of an international team that made the discovery in Eritrea. On the Red Sea coast in the Gulf of Zula, the team woke up one morning last January to find that they had camped on the surface of a 125,000-year-old coral reef, now six metres above sea level. Mireille Guillaume, a marine biologist at the Museum of Natural History in Paris, discovered the fact during her morning 'ablutions', laughs Henrich Bruggeman, a marine biologist at the University of Asmara, Eritrea and her husband. The ancient coral reef in Eritrea. It is 6 metres above water today because climate changes. "The night before, we had to camp because it was dark and so we found a flat place to pitch our tents. In the morning, Mireille went out and discovered we were camping on a fossil reef platform." But what they found embedded in the coral reef was no joke. Fossil clams, scallops, oysters and crabs. And two types of stone tools! They are the earliest evidence of humans living near a marine environment - perhaps where our ancestors first learned to eat seafood. "We think that whoever was using these tools was using them to harvest marine food resources, like crabs, clams, oysters," says Walter. The discovery suggests that our early ancestors migrated out of Africa along the Red Sea coast. In the rocks of the former beach near the coral reef, the team also found fossils of elephants, hippos and rhinoceros. All together, they paint a picture of what life was like 125,000 years ago. "I'd be quite shocked if they weren't modern humans with similar skeletal structure," says Michael Chazan, an archeologist at the University of Toronto. "They would be living on the edge of a coral reef around a lagoon, and living off of shellfish and hunting animals that lived in the same area as well." Evidence of the seashore human settlement suggests that the Red Sea coast was the migration route taken by our early ancestors to enter the Near East and into the Old World. The fossil record shows that anatomically modern humans left Africa about 100,000 years ago - just 25,000 years after they lived on the coast of Africa. "Once early humans adapted to this environment, it would have been natural for them - over many generations - to expand their presence along the coast," explains Walter. Shellfish embedded in the coral reef. But while the find provides a possible answer to the key question of when and how we migrated out of Africa, it also raises a lot of other intriguing questions. The team found two main types of stone tools. "We're finding these acheulean hand axes again, which is very interesting because it's very, very young to find them. Most people had thought that the industry had died out by 300,000 to 200,000 years ago," says Walter. The team also found an abundance of obsidian tools, which are tools made from volcanic glass. "They were really fresh, not eroded by weather and wind and so on," describes Bruggeman. An obsidian tool. But as Chazan explains, obsidian tools are usually associated with much later periods, and most commonly used with the origins of agriculture about 7,000 or 6,000 BC. "Part of the surprise with Eritrea is that everywhere that I've usually seen obsidian is with much later periods and it's rather surprising in a paleolithic context," says Chazan. "And it's even more surprising when there are handaxes right next door to them - and even more surprising yet, when they're stuck into the backs of reefs in the marine context." Perhaps even more surprises await in northeast African country of Eritrea, which is turning out to be a treasure trove of ancient relics. The team is only in the middle of this scientific exploration. "As research here continues, I believe Eritrea will yield many more secrets about how modern humans evolved and migrated out of Africa," says Walter. Walter has brought back some samples of the coral reef to date it radiometrically - to prove it is indeed 125,000 years old. He plans to publish all his findings in scientific journals next year and to make many more field trips to Eritrea to continue with his research. All images of the discovery are courtesy Bob Walter and Gail Smithwalter. For more pictures of the discoveries in Eritrea, check out the Slideshow. This is the last story of our special 5-part series on human origins. Story by: Gloria Chang     What Other EXN Visitors Think About This Story Click the button to add your opinion I did my palaeoanthropology degree some time ago, ...    Helena   The complete Hunting Hominids series Monday, September 6 Where the bones are Canadian geologist Bob Walter has found thousands of hand axes in the badlands of Eritrea. Who were the toolmakers? Part 1 of a 5-part series on one of the richest paleolithic archeological sites in the world. Read this story on exn.ca. This story also aired on @discovery.ca. Tuesday, September 7 'Hand Axe Hill' Why were so many hand axes - thousands - in one place? How is a hand axe made? Part 2 of a 5-part series on one of the richest Paleolithic archaeological sites in the world. Read this story on exn.ca. This story also aired on @discovery.ca. Wednesday, September 8 'Pleistocene Park' Flowing rivers and lush green forests. Crocodiles, turtles, antelope, hippos, rhinos, elephants and horses. This was life in the badlands of Eritrea one million years ago. Part 3 of a 5-part series. Read this story on exn.ca. This story also aired on @discovery.ca. Thursday, September 9 The Dating Game When did we take the leap from ape to two-legged walking hominids? When did we grow large brains, use language? When did Homo sapiens evolve and migrate out of Africa? It all depends on accurate fossil dating techniques. Part 4 of a 5-part series. Read this story on exn.ca. This story also aired on @discovery.ca. Friday, September 10 Out of Africa Call it the world's first oyster bar. Bob Walter has discovered the oldest evidence of stone tools near a marine environment. At 125,000 years old, the find suggests our human ancestors migrated out of Africa north along the Red Sea coast. Part 5 of 5. Read this story on exn.ca. This story also aired on @discovery.ca. Eritrea     Background: Eritrea was awarded to Ethiopia in 1952 as part of a federation. Ethiopia's annexation of Eritrea as a province 10 years later sparked a 30-year struggle for independence that ended in 1991 with Eritrean rebels defeating governmental forces; independence was overwhelmingly approved in a 1993 referendum. A two and a half year border war with Ethiopia that erupted in 1998 ended under UN auspices on 12 December 2000.     See also : Alternative Maps Eritrea Paper Currency Eritrea Historical Area: total:  121,320 sq km land:  121,320 sq km water:  0 sq km Some maps show a sub-division of 6 Provinces Government type: transitional government note:  following a successful referendum on independence for the Autonomous Region of Eritrea on 23-25 April 1993, a National Assembly, composed entirely of the People's Front for Democracy and Justice or PFDJ, was established as a transitional legislature; a Constitutional Commission was also established to draft a constitution; ISAIAS Afworki was elected president by the transitional legislature; the constitution, ratified in May 1997, did not enter into effect, pending parliamentary and presidential elections; parliamentary elections have now been scheduled to take place in December 2001 Capital: Asmara (formerly Asmera) Administrative divisions: 8 provinces (singular - awraja); Akale Guzay, Barka, Denkel, Hamasen, Sahil, Semhar, Senhit, Seraye note:  in May 1995 the National Assembly adopted a resolution stating that the administrative structure of Eritrea, which had been established by former colonial powers, would consist of only six provinces when the new constitution, then being drafted, became effective in 1997; the new provinces, the names of which had not been recommended by the US Board on Geographic Names for recognition by the US Government, pending acceptable definition of the boundaries, were: Anseba, Debub, Debubawi Keyih Bahri, Gash-Barka, Maakel, and Semanawi Keyih Bahri; more recently, it has been reported that these provinces have been redesignated regions and renamed Southern Red Sea, Northern Red Sea, Anseba, Gash-Barka, Southern, and Central Independence: 24 May 1993 (from Ethiopia) Province Name CoA Flag Province Name CoA Flag Akale Guzay     Sahil     Barka     Semhar     Denkel     Senhit     Hamasen     Seraye                 Alternative Maps                             Land boundaries: total:  1,630 km border countries:  Djibouti 113 km, Ethiopia 912 km, Sudan 605 km Coastline: 2,234 km total; mainland on Red Sea 1,151 km, islands in Red Sea 1,083 km Maritime claims: territorial sea:  12 NM Eritrea Paper Currency     1 Nakfa     5 Nakfa     10 Nakfa     20 Nakfa     50 Nakfa     100 Nakfa Eritrea Historical                     to Dec 1882                Dec 1882 - 5 May 1941                       5 May 1941 - 15 Sep 1952                   15 Sep 1952 - May 1993            15 Sep 1952 - 14 Nov 1962;              May 1993 - 5 Dec 1995                  Adopted 5 Dec 1995 1557/58                    Massawa part of Ottoman Empire. Dec 1813 - 1826            Ruled by Egypt (nominally part of Ottoman Empire). 1826                       Direct Ottoman rule restored. 1865 - Dec 1882            Ruled by Egypt (nominally part of Ottoman Empire). Mar 1870                   Assab administered by the Societa di Navigazione Rubattino. Dec 1882                   Port of Assab an Italian protectorate.  6 Feb 1885                Port of Massawa an Italian protectorate; expansion in the                             hinterland follows. 1888                       Italian Assab Protectorate (Assab, Massawa, and the hinterland).  1 Jan 1890                Italian colony (Eritrea).  1 Jun 1936                Part of Italian East Africa (province of Eritrea, formed by the                             merger of the colony and the Ethiopian region of Tigre)                            (see Ethiopia).  5 May 1941                British administration 19 Feb 1951                United Nations administration. 15 Sep 1952                Federated with Ethiopia under the sovereignty of the                            Ethiopian crown (Eritrean Autonomous State). 14 Nov 1962                Integral part of Ethiopia, autonomy revoked (Eritrea province                            of Ethiopia). 18 Sep 1987                Some autonomy granted. 24 May 1991                De facto independence from Ethiopia. 25 Apr 1993                Referendum endorses independence. 24 May 1993                Independence (State of Eritrea). Nakfa Online & Eritrea Currentcy (FREE Currency Converter) The History of our Country Nak'fa The town of Nak'fa served as the headquarters of Eritrea's resistance movement before independence from Ethiopia. As a result Nak'fa has been bombed by the Ethiopian air force more than once and it has become the Eritrean symbol of their hard-fought-for independence. Eritrea's currency, the nakfa, was named after the town. Nak'fa looks like a remote collection of iron shacks and a visit to the town gives a good idea of what took place on Eritrea's battlefields and will give you a better understanding of the will for Eritrean self-determination. The only stone building that was left standing in Nak'fa is the Nak'fa Mosque. You can still see the hole that was blown in its cupola during Ethiopian bombardments. [2] More > [0] Eritrea History of Eritrea Eritrea is one of the newest and most promising nations in Africa -- and containts remnants of some of its oldest civilizations. One of the earliest known references to Eritrea is from Aeschylus (Fragment 67) in which he refers to the "Mare Erythreum" (Red Sea) as "the lake that is the jewel of Ethiopia." Eritrea recently fought and won one of the longest wars in the world. After thirty years of bitter strugle, Eritrea achieve total independence and the right to self-determination. The Eritrean people acheived their goals in 1991 in a stunning defeat of the occupying Ethiopian forces which also helped liberate Ethiopia from the Soviet-backed Dergue (Menguistu Hailemariam) regime. Early History Between 1000 and 400 BC, a semitic group of people known as the Sabeans crossed the Red Sea into the region known as present Eritrea, and intermingled with the Hamitic inhabitants who had migrated from the northern Sudan. The region was then controlled by various foreign invaders such as the Axumite kingdom, the Funji Sultans of Sudan, the Egyptians, the Portugese and the Turks. Each of these foreign occupiers had a distinct impact on the development of present day Eritrea as a nation and in the formation of an Eritrean identity. Colonisation; ITALY None, however, was quite as significant as the Italian colonial period from 1880 - 1941. This was the era during which Eritrea emerged as a distinct society and territory. In the late 1880's Italy purchased the port of Assab from a commercial company that was administering it. Encouraged by the British, who were then attempting to contain France's colonial asspirations in the Horn, Italy proceeded to colonize the region. Italy moved to transform Eritrea, with its access to sea and agricultural potential, into a permanent colony. The king of Italy issued a decree that formally established Eritrea on 1 January 1890. Eritrea was defined as a Nation State, and a colony of Italy. Italian immigration began at the turn of the century. At the twilight of of the Italian colonial era (late 1930s) about 70,000 Italians had settled in Eritrea. Italian agricultural policy for Eritrea was designed to primarily benefit the settlement population and to sustain Italian exports to Europe and East Africa. The development of a market- based economy required that the Italians upgrade Eritrea's infrastructure. The extensive communications and transportation facilities that were established were among the best in Africa during this era. The Italians built railway lines between Asmara and Keren and Agordat. The port of Massawa was linked by rail to the interior. All-weather roads were constructed through the mountains of Eritrea and the lowlands. Two modern airports were built. An export-based industrial sector was created and Eritrea forged new links with the international economy. National Identity and, gradually, a national consciousness developed during this era. People from diverse economic, ethnic and religious backgrounds were structurally linked within the colonial borders. Their experiences differed sharply from those of their neighbors in Ethiopia. Ethiopia remained dominated by a feudal economic system managed by imperial rule. By the 1940s, Eritrea had evolved a substantial working class as well as a distinct urban- based intelligentsia. Neverthless Italian colonial rule was not benign. The Italian administration reflected the views and aspirations of a fascist government. Eritrea's people were seen as little more than a source of cheap labour to fuel the aims of Rome. Eritreans played only subsidiary roles in their country's economic and political development. Colonialism; GREAT BRITAIN With the defeat of Italy in 1941, the great powers (France, Soviet Union, UK and the US) decided that Great Britain would then govern Eritrea as a protectorate. The British Military Administration (BMA) ruled Eritrea as "Occupied Enemy Territory." The Eritrean people viewed the British as a welcome respite from Italian fascist rule. Nonethless, Eritrean society was by then experiencing the first stirrings of the desire for self determination. Peasant resistance had increased during the final years of Italian governance. The economic hardships suffered because of the dominance of foreign agendas began to make Eritreans conscious of the need to chart their own economic future. Until this period, Ethiopian involvement in Eritrea was quite limited. From the turn of the century through the onset of British military rule, Eritrea and Ethiopia moved on separate economic and political tracks. Eritrea developed a colonial-based market economy while Ethiopia maintained feudalism. By the 1940's, however, Ethiopian designs on Eritrea clearly emerged. The newly-reinstated Emperor of Ethiopia began his effort to gain influence and control over Eritrea. Ethiopia employed three primary tactics to acheive its goal of increasing influence and domination. These were interference in the religious affairs of Eritrea, manipulation of political parties and organizations, and terrorism. The British responce to Ethiopia's increasingly interventionist stance was largely ineffectual. They were unable to counter the growing disruption generated from Addis Ababa. UN Decides Eritrea's Fate The end of World War II resulted in UN oversight of Eritrea. By this time the BMA was finding it difficult to govern Eritrea. Ethiopia was staking a claim through intervention and diplomatic efforts. The US, which had maintained a presence in British-administered Eritrea, was showing increasing interest in obtaining a strategic presence on the Red Sea coast. The discussions that were to define Eritrea's future for the coming forty years began in April 1949 in New York. Various proposals - partition, annexation and independence - were debated. According to the British, 75 percent of the population suported Independence. On 2 December 1950, the UN passed a resolution that formally federated Eritrea to Ethiopia. In September 1952, the agreement was put into practice and Ethiopians replaced the British. The international decision regarding the fate of Eritrea had little to do with the aspirations of the Eritrean people themselves. Liberation Struggle: 1961-1991 Although there was organized resistance throughout the British Military Administration and federation with Ethiopia, the first act of armed resistance by Eritreans against Ethiopian rule was September 1, 1961. The event became a pretext for total annexation by Ethiopia on November 14, 1962. Scattered resistance groups formed links with pro-independence movements outside the country, and the first organized military front, the Eritrean Liberation Front (ELF) was formed. By 1965 the ELF had about 1,000 fighters in the field. In an effort to deal with the cultural and geographic challenges of waging a national campaign for liberation, the ELF established semi-autonomous zones. This led eventually to "balkanization" of the resistance movement into Muslim and Christian factions, with some key defections over to the Ethiopian side. Following a concerted attack on the ELF by the Ethiopians, there were calls for unity within the liberation movement, matched by more defections and splinter movements. During this same period (late 1960s and early 1970s) Emperor Haile Selassie was also losing his grip on internal affairs throughout Ethiopia. Large numbers of Christian highlanders joined the ELF, and a second military force, the Eritrean People's Liberation Front (EPLF) was formed. By 1976 the ELF and EPLF had a combined force of 20,000, and were making signficant advances in controlling the rural and less-populated regions of the country. The EPLF quickly became the more powerful of the two forces, and was more effective when meeting Ethiopian troops. In 1980, angered by an attack in which the ELF left their flanks exposed, the EPLF drove their rivals from the field, and faced the enemy alone for the remainder of the war. Despite increased Soviet support for the Dergue (Menguistu Hailemariam) regime, amounting to more than $16 billion, the EPLF succeeded in meeting its better-equipped enemy head-on in a series of eight offenses, where the odds favored the Ethiopians by 10:1 in most cases. Using a strategy of strategic retreats and lightning counter-attacks, the EPLF was able to re-capture 90% of Eritreans from a demoralized Ethiopian army by 1990. The infrastructure created for support of EPLF troops and their civilian charges was just as significant in bringing about eventual liberation as was the military skill and bravery of the outnumbered soldiers. The EPLF established networks of underground hospitals, factories, schools, and libraries for the benefit of the people in liberated zones. Literacy and public health campaigns significantly improved the daily lives of peasant farmers, despite the war being fought on all sides. The EPLF insituted innovative civil administration, legal and social codes that transformed the traditional and colonial structures that preceded them. Marriage, property and inheritance customs were re-vamped to provide equality for historically oppressed Eritrean women. More than 30% of the EPLF's combatants were women, and their contribution was too significant for the society to willingly turn its back, and return to the old ways. The Birth of a Nation The 24th of May 1993, brought in the dawn of a new era for the Eritrean people. Having won the right to define their own future, they voted for Independence in a referendum held from the 23rd-25th of April 1993. On the 27th of April 1993, the Independent Eritrean Referendum Commission, the United Nations Observer Mission for the Eritrean Referendum (UNOVER), the OAU, the Arab League, the Non - Aligned Movement, the National Citizens Monitoring Group and numerous individual observers were unanimous in their conclusion, that the referendum had been unequivocally free and fair. In the words of the then Provisional Government of Eritrea (PGE) Secretary General; Issaias Afwerki; the referendum was " a delightful and sacrosanct historical conclusion to the choice of the Eritrean people. And although it has been decided that formal independence will be declared on 24 May 1993, Eritrea is a soverign country as of today." (27 April 1993). The Independence of Eritrea and its territorial sovereignity was immediately recognised by the world. ERITREA: CHARACTERISTICS The people The people of Eritrea, are known as Eritreans. They are a resilient group of people who thrive on hope and a deep tradition of comradeship among each other. The fact that most of the population spent many years in Diaspora or on the war front, has helped in establishing a deep bond between them that trancends mere ethnic or religious divisions. POPULATION: 3,467,087 (July 1993 est.) GROWTH RATE: 3.46% (1993 est.) ETHNIC GROUPS: Bilen, Nara, Afar, Tigre, Kunama, Hadareb, Saho, Rashaida, Tigrinya RELIGIONS: Christianity, Islam, Animist Geography Today; Eritrea occupies a strategic position along the worlds busiest shipping lanes and the Middl East oil fields, and is also an oasis of stability in the volaitaile regions of the Horn of Africa. Eritrea retained its entire coast line along the Red Sea, upon its independence on 27 April 1993; leaving Ethiopia landlocked. LOCATION: Horn of Africa; bordered to the North and West by Sudan; South by Ethiopia; South-East by Djibouti and to the North -East by the Red Sea. AREA SIZE: Total land area is 121,320 km sq. Eritrea is slightly larger than either England or Pennsylvania. LAND BOUNDARIES: Total 1,630 km. Boundaries with neighbouring countries is 113 km with Djibouti; 912 km with Ethiopia and 605 km with the Sudan. COAST LINE: Coast line by the Red Sea is 1,151 km; together with the Dahlack Archipelagos is 2,234 km. MARITIME CLAIMS: Teritorial claims on the Red Sea; 12 nautical miles. DATELINE: A POLITICAL HISTORY 1889- Eritrea defined as a Nation State/ colonised by Italy. 1941- World War II/ Italy defeated in Africa/ Eritrea is now governed by the British. 1952- Eritrea federated as an autonomous state with Ethiopia. 1961- The beginning of the Independence war by the ELF (the Eritrean Liberation Front). 1962- Ethiopia annexes Eritrea as it's 14th province. 1970- EPLF (Eritrean People's Liberation Front) formed. 1976-8 Liberation movements take control over most of the towns and countryside. 1991- Eritrea liberated from Ethiopia by the EPLF. Transitional govt. set up with Secretary - General of the EPLF, Issaias Afwerki as leader. 1993- UN sponsored referendum for Independence of Eritrea held on APRIL 23rd - 25th. 99% of the votes cast are pro Independence. On April 27th Eritrea becomes an Independent and recognised nation. MAY 24 is proclaimed National Day in Eritrea. Red Sea::           Red Sea, ancient Sinus Arabicus or Erythraean Sea, narrow sea, c.170,000 sq mi (440,300 sq km), c.1,450 mi (2,330 km) long and up to 225 mi (362 km) wide, between Africa (Egypt, Sudan, and Eritrea) and the Arabian peninsula (Saudi Arabia and Yemen); a part of the Great Rift Valley. The Gulf of Aqaba and the Gulf of Suez are the sea's northern arms; between them is the Sinai peninsula. The Red Sea is linked with the Gulf of Aden and the Arabian Sea by the straits of Bab el Mandeb. The flat coastal plains of the Red Sea slope gradually to the submarine central trough, more than 7,000 ft (2,134 m) deep. The sea is dotted with islands (the largest group is the Dahlak Archipelago in the southwest) and with dangerous coral reefs. It is surrounded by exceedingly hot and dry deserts and steppes; the summer water temperature exceeds 85°F (29°C), and the water has a high salt content. The Red Sea was an important trade route in antiquity. Its importance declined with the discovery of an all-water route around Africa in 1498. The opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 made the Red Sea one of the chief shipping routes connecting Europe with East Asia and Australia. The closing of the canal after the 1967 Arab-Israeli War, the building of pipelines to the Mediterranean Sea, and the construction of supertankers too large for the canal diminished the sea's importance as a commercial artery, especially for petroleum. In 1975, however, the canal was reopened and enlarged, and traffic through the sea increased. Suez, Egypt; Elat, Israel; Jidda, Saudi Arabia; Hodeida, Yemen; Massawa, Eritrea; and Port Sudan, Sudan, are the main ports on the Red Sea and its northern arms. Red Sea Arabic: 'al-bahru l-'ahmar Sea between Africa and the Arabian peninsula, bordering Eritrea, Sudan, Egypt, Saudi Arabia, and Yemen. The length is 2,250 km, and the maximum width is 355 km. Maximum depth is 2,130 metres. To the north, the Red Sea connects to the Suez Gulf to the west of Sinai, and to Gulf of Aqaba to the east. To the south, the Red Sea is connected to the Gulf of Aden, which is part of the Arabian Sea. The Red Sea is part of the Rift Valley, that cuts through most of eastern Africa. Its ports are Jedda of Saudi Arabia and Mukalla of Yemen. Suez, located at the Gulf of Suez, is equally important as these two, for the traffic of the Red Sea. Port Sudan, Sudan has today only minor importance beyond the domestic needs of Sudan. HISTORY 20 million years ago: As the Arabian peninsula is torn away from Africa, the Red Sea is formed. 1869: The Red Sea becomes a route for commercial shipping with the opening of the Suez Canal.

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