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The modern state of Cameroon was created in 1961 by the unification of two former colonies, one British and one French.
Since then it has struggled from one-party rule to a multi-party system in which the freedom of expression is severely limited.
OVERVIEW
Cameroon began its independence with a bloody insurrection which was suppressed only with the help of French forces.
There followed 20 years of repressive government under
President Ahmadou Ahidjo. Nonetheless, Cameroon saw investment in
agriculture, education, health care and transport.
In 1982 Mr Ahidjo was succeeded by his prime minister,
Paul Biya. Faced with popular discontent, Mr Biya allowed multi-party
presidential elections in 1992, which he won.
In 1994 and 1996 Cameroon and Nigeria fought over the
disputed, oil-rich Bakassi peninsula. Nigeria withdraw its troops from
the area in 2006 in line with an international court ruling which
awarded sovereignty to Cameroon.
Internally, there are tensions over the two mainly
English-speaking southern provinces. A secessionist movement, the
Southern Cameroon National Council (SCNC), emerged in the 1990s and has
been declared as illegal.
Cameroon has one of the highest literacy rates in
Africa. However, the country's progress is hampered by a level of
corruption that is among the highest in the world.
In 1986 Cameroon made the world headlines when poisonous gases escaped from Lake Nyos, killing nearly 2,000 people.
1520 - Portuguese set up sugar plantations and begin slave trade in Cameroon.
1600s - Dutch take over slave trade from Portuguese.
1884 - Germans extend protectorate over Cameroon.
1916 - British and French troops force Germans to leave Cameroon.
1919 - London Declaration divides Cameroon into a British administrative zone (20 per cent of the land, divided into Northern and Southern Cameroons) and a French one (80 per cent).
1922 - League of Nations confers mandates on Britain and France for their respective administrative zones.
1946 - British and French mandates renewed as UN trusteeships.
Independence
1958 - French Cameroon granted self-government with Ahmadou Ahidjo as prime minister.
1960 - French Cameroon granted independence and becomes the Republic of Cameroon with Ahidjo as president.
1961 - Following a UN-sponsored referendum, the (British) Southern Cameroons join the Republic of Cameroon to become the Federal Republic of Cameroon, while Northern Cameroons join Nigeria.
1961-63 - Large-scale insurrection, believed to have been
orchestrated by the Cameroonian People's Party, put down with the help
of French forces.
1966 - National Cameroonian Union formed out of six major parties and becomes the sole legal party.
1972 - Cameroon becomes a unitary state following a national referendum and is renamed the United Republic of Cameroon.
Paul Biya era
1982 - Prime Minister Paul Biya succeeds Ahidjo, who resigns.
1983 - Ahidjo goes into exile after Biya accuses him of masterminding a coup.
1984 - Biya elected to his first full term as president, changes the country's name to the Republic of Cameroon.
1986 - Discharge of poisonous gases from Lake Nyos kills nearly 2,000 people.
1992 October - Biya re-elected in Cameroon's first multiparty presidential election.
1994 - Fighting between Cameroon and Nigeria flares up over disputed oil-rich Bakassa Peninsula.
1996 January-May - Cameroonian-Nigerian border clashes.
1996 May - Cameroon and Nigeria agree to UN mediation over Bakassa Peninsula.
1997 May - Biya's party, the Cameroon National Democratic Movement (formerly the National Cameroonian Union), wins a majority of seats in parliament amid allegations of irregularities.
1997 October - Biya re-elected president in ballot that is boycotted by main opposition parties.
1998 - Cameroon classed as the most corrupt country in the world by business monitor Transparency International.
2000 June - World Bank approves funding for oil and pipeline project in Cameroon and Chad despite strong criticism from environmental and human rights activists.
2000 October - Roman Catholic Church in Cameroon denounces corruption, saying it has permeated all levels of society.
2001 June - Fears for Cameroon's environment increase, with
Global Forest Watch reporting that 80% of the country's indigenous
forests have been allocated for logging.
2001 October - Growing tension between Biya government and separatists lobbying on behalf of country's 5m English-speakers. Unrest results in three deaths, several arrests.
2002 July - Parliamentary and municipal elections; opposition claims fraud and vote-rigging.
Bakassi ruling
2002 October - Ruling by International Court of Justice (ICJ) gives sovereignty of oil-rich Bakassi peninsula to Cameroon. But Nigeria, whose forces occupy the area, rejects the ruling.
2003 December - Nigeria hands over 32 villages to Cameroon as part of the 2002 ICJ border deal. In January 2004 both countries agree to mount joint border patrols.
2004 September - Nigeria fails to meet a deadline to hand over Bakassi.
2004 November - Paul Biya wins new seven-year term as president.
2006 June - Nigeria agrees to withdraw its troops from the Bakassi peninsula to settle its long-running border dispute with Cameroon. The breakthrough comes at a UN-mediated summit.
The Paris Club of major lending nations agrees to cancel almost all of Cameroon's $3.5bn debt.
2006 August - A ceremony marks the transfer of the Bakassi peninsula to Cameroon after Nigeria completes its troop withdrawal from the area.
2006 December - Up to 30,000 refugees fleeing conflicts in Chad and the Central African Republic have crossed into east Cameroon over the past 18 months, the UN refugee agency UNHCR reports.
2007 May - A Kenya Airways plane crashes, killing all 114 people on board.
Cameroon President Paul Biya (right)
Yaoundé, capital of Cameroon
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Political liberalisation ushered in by the return to civilian rule in 1999 has allowed militants from religious and ethnic group and express their frustrations more freely, and with increasing violence.
OVERVIEW
Thousands of people have died over the past few years in communal rivalry. Separatist aspirations have been growing, prompting reminders of the bitter civil war over the breakaway Biafran republic in the late 1960s.
flee. Inter-faith violence is said to be rooted in poverty, unemployment and the competition for land.
The government is striving to boost the economy, which experienced an oil boom in the 1970s and is once again benefiting from high prices on the world market. But progress has been undermined by corruption and mismanagement.
The former British colony is one of the world's largest oil producers, but the industry has produced unwanted side effects.
President: Umaru Yar'Adua
Umaru Yar'Adua of the ruling People's Democratic Party (PDP) won the presidency following the April 2007 elections which were condemned by local and foreign observers, who alleged widespread vote-rigging.
He had served as governor of the remote northern Katsina state since
May 1999. A little-known figure in national politics, he was chosen by
outgoing President Olusegun Obasanjo as his successor.
He comes from a prominent political family. His father
was a minister in the first government after independence and his late
elder brother was an army general who served as deputy to President
Olusegun Obasanjo when he was Nigeria's military ruler during the
1970s.
When he was elected governor of Katsina in 1999, he
immediately declared his assets. In his bid for the presidency he
promised to fight corruption.
Mr Yar'Adua's health has been the subject of media
speculation and during the election campaign he travelled to Germany
for treatment.
He was born in 1951 and was a chemistry teacher until he went into business, then politics, in the 1980s.
Mr Yar'Adua took over from Olusegun Obasanjo, whose
election in 1999 came at the end of a period of military rule. He won a
second term in 2003. A bid to keep him in office for a third term was
blocked by parliament.
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It was also the first black African nation in the region to achieve independence from a colonial power, in this instance Britain.
OVERVIEW
Despite being rich in mineral resources, and endowed with a good education system and efficient civil service, Ghana fell victim to corruption and mismanagement soon after independence in 1957.
In 1966 its first president and pan-African hero, Kwame Nkrumah, was deposed in a coup, heralding years of mostly-military rule. In 1981 Flight Lieutenant Jerry Rawlings staged his second coup. The country began to move towards economic stability and democracy.
In April 1992 a constitution allowing for a multi-party system was approved in a referendum, ushering in a period of democracy.
A well-administered country by regional standards, Ghana is often seen as a model for political and economic reform in Africa. Cocoa exports are an essential part of the economy; Ghana is the world's second-largest producer.
It has a high-profile peacekeeping role; troops from
Ghana have been deployed in Ivory Coast, Liberia, Sierra Leone and DR
Congo.
President: John Kufuor
John Kufuor won a second term in December 2004, in a presidential poll praised for being well-run and orderly.
He came to power in the presidential ballot in December
2000, marking the first peaceful, democratic transfer of power in Ghana
since independence. He succeeded the long-time ruler Jerry Rawlings.
Known as the "Gentle Giant", Mr Kufuor has made economic
growth a priority. During his first term, inflation and borrowing costs
fell.
He has also taken a leading role in mediating in regional conflicts, including those in Liberia and Ivory Coast.
Born in 1938, Mr Kufuor is a devout Roman Catholic. A
lawyer who studied at Oxford, he held positions as deputy foreign
minister and as secretary for local government.
Ghana has a parliamentary form of government. The president serves four-year terms and chooses the cabinet.
- Full name: Republic of Ghana
- Population: 21.8 million (UN, 2005)
- Capital: Accra
- Area: 238,533 sq km (92,098 sq miles)
- Major languages: English, African languages including Akan, Ewe
- Major religions: Christianity, indigenous beliefs, Islam
- Life expectancy: 56 years (men), 57 years (women) (UN)
- Monetary unit: Cedi
- Main exports: Gold, cocoa, timber, tuna, bauxite, aluminium, manganese ore, diamonds
- GNI per capita: US $450 (World Bank, 2006)
- Internet domain: .gh
- International dialling code: +233
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Sierra Leone, in West Africa, emerged from a decade of civil war in 2002, with the help of Britain, the former colonial power, and a large United Nations peacekeeping mission.
More than 17,000 foreign troops disarmed tens of thousands of rebels and militia fighters. The country now faces the challenge of reconstruction.
OVERVIEW
A lasting feature of the war, which left some 50,000 dead, was the atrocities committed by the rebels, whose trademark was to hack off the hands of their victims.
A UN-backed war crimes court has been set up to try those, from both
sides, who bear the greatest responsibility for the brutalities.
But the problems of poverty, tribal rivalry and official corruption that caused the war are far from over.
The 70,000 former combatants who were disarmed and rehabilitated after the war have swollen the ranks of the many young people seeking employment.
Sierra Leone is rich in diamonds. The trade in illicit gems, known as "blood diamonds" for their role in funding conflicts, perpetuated the civil war. The government has attempted to crack down on cross-border diamond trafficking.
Diamond exports, and the exploitation of mineral reserves, have helped to bouy the post-conflict economy.
Sierra Leone has a special significance in the history of the transatlantic slave trade. It was the departure point for thousands of west African captives. The capital, Freetown, was founded as a home for repatriated former slaves in 1787.
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Diversity is a key feature of South Africa, where 11 languages are recognised as official, where community leaders include rabbis and chieftains, rugby players and returned exiles, where traditional healers ply their trade around the corner from stockbrokers and where housing ranges from mud huts to palatial homes with swimming pools.
The diverse communities, however, have not had much representation for long.
Until 1994 South Africa was ruled by a white minority government which was so determined to hang onto power that it took activists most of the last century before they succeeded in their fight to get rid of apartheid and extend democracy to the rest of the population.
The government introduced grand social engineering schemes such as the forced resettlement of hundreds of thousands of people. It poisoned and bombed opponents and encouraged trouble in neighbouring countries.
The apartheid government eventually negotiated itself out of power, and the new leadership encouraged reconciliation. But the cost of the years of conflict will be paid for a long time yet, not least in terms of lawlessness, social disruption and lost education.
South Africa faces major problems, but having held three successful national elections as well as local polls since the end of white rule, a democratic culture appears to be taking hold, allowing people at least some say in the search for solutions.
Very much Africa's superpower, South Africa has the continent's biggest economy, with strong financial and manufacturing sectors. It is a leading exporter of minerals and tourism is a key source of foreign exchange. But many South Africans remain poor and unemployment is high.
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While best known for its pyramids and ancient
civilisations, Egypt has played a central role in Middle East politics
in modern times.
Its three wars with Israel in 1948, 1967 and 1973, then
its eventual peace with its adversary in 1979, have seen Egypt move
from being a warring nation to become a key representative in the peace
process.
But the historic step taken by President Anwar Sadat in the Camp David agreement with Israel saw the expulsion of Egypt from the Arab League until 1989, and in 1981 Mr Sadat was assassinated by Islamic extremists angry at his moves to clamp down on their activities.
Since then, President Hosni Mubarak has taken a more moderate line, but
Islamic groups have continued their campaigns sporadically, being
responsible for deadly attacks that have often targeted tourists and
resort areas.
Campaigners for political reform have become more vocal
in recent times and have taken to the streets in defiance of an
emergency law, in force since 1981. Activists say the law restricts
political expression.
Although Egypt has changed its constitution to allow the
opposition to contest presidential polls, potential candidates must
meet strict criteria for participation. A ban remains on religious
political parties.
Egypt's ancient past and the fact that it was one of the
first Middle Eastern countries to open up to the West following
Napoleon's invasion means that it is seen by many as the intellectual
and cultural leader in the region. The head of Cairo's Al-Azhar Mosque
is one of the highest authorities in Sunni Islam.
Egypt's teeming cities - and almost all agricultural
activity - are concentrated along the banks of the Nile, and on the
river's delta. Deserts occupy most of the country.
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A largely semi-desert country, Chad is rich in gold and uranium and stands to benefit from its recently-acquired status as an oil-exporting state.
However, Africa's fifth-largest nation suffers from inadequate infrastructure and internal conflict. Poverty is rife, and health and social conditions compare unfavourably with those elsewhere in the region.
OVERVIEW
Chad's post-independence history has been marked by
instability and violence stemming mostly from tension between the
mainly Arab-Muslim north and the predominantly Christian and animist
south.
In 1969 Muslim dissatisfaction with the first president, Ngarta
Tombalbaye - a Christian southerner - developed into a guerrilla war.
This, combined with a severe drought, undermined his rule and in 1975
President Tombalbaye was killed in a coup led by another southerner,
Felix Malloum.
Mr Malloum, too, failed to end the war, and in 1979 he
was replaced by a Libyan-backed northerner, Goukouki Oueddei. But the
fighting continued, this time with a former defence minister, Hissen
Habre, on the opposite side.
In 1982, with French help, Mr Habre captured the
capital, N'Djamena, and Mr Oueddei escaped to the north, where he
formed a rival government. The standoff ended in 1990, when Mr Habre
was toppled by the Libyan-backed Idriss Deby.
By the mid-1990s the situation had stabilised and in 1996 Mr Deby was confirmed president in Chad's first election.
In 1998 an armed insurgency began in the north, led by
President Deby's former defence chief, Youssouf Togoimi. A
Libyan-brokered peace deal in 2002 failed to put an end to the
fighting.
From 2003 unrest in neighbouring Sudan's Darfur region
spilled across the border, along with hundreds of thousands of Sudanese
refugees. They have been joined by thousands of Chadians who are
fleeing rebel fighting as well as violence between ethnic Arab and
ethnic African Chadians.
Chad and Sudan accuse each other of backing and harbouring rebels.
Chad became an oil-producing nation in 2003 with the
completion of a $4bn pipeline linking its oilfields to terminals on the
Atlantic coast. The government has moved to relax a law controlling the
use of oil money, which the World Bank had made a condition of its $39m
loan.
President: Idriss Deby
Idriss Deby, a former coup leader, won a third term in presidential elections in May 2006, gaining 77.5% of the vote.
The main opposition parties, who accused the president of corruption and refused to field any candidates, rejected the result. Polling went ahead despite a rebel assault on the capital three weeks before election day.
The president has also been beset by splits within his Zaghawa ethnic group and by defections and desertions in the military.
- Full name:The Republic of Chad
- Population: 9.1 million (UN, 2005)
- Capital: N'Djamena
- Area: 1.28 million sq km (495,800 sq miles)
- Major languages: French, Arabic
- Major religions: Islam, Christianity
- Life expectancy: 42 years (men), 45 years (women) (UN)
- Monetary unit: 1 CFA (Communaute Financiere Africaine) franc = 100 centimes
- Main exports: Cotton, oil, livestock, textiles