The horse began arriving in the Pacific Northwest in the early 1700's by means of previously established trade routes. John Ewers stated in his research that "the trade in horses on the northern Plains at that time was almost without exception a trade between nomadic and horticultural peoples, and that this horse trade was coincident with the exchange of products of the hunt for agricultural produce on the part of these same tribes." Ewers also provided a map for horse trade before 1805 (Fig 1) (1980: 11). Robert Denhardt's research also indicates that horses were primarily acquired through trade. He stated " the natives obtained their original horses, and always by far the greatest number, from the Spaniards or neighboring tribes and not from the wild herds. The Indians had mounts by the time the wild herds dotted the plains, and they always preferred domesticated animals to the mestenos." (1975: 110).

With the arrival of the horse, the lives of the Oregon natives began to change. Though not all tribes became horsemen, some of the most noted are the Nez Perce and the Cayuse. The Umatilla and the Walla Walla also acquired horses. The biggest changes occurred in the social life of the people. "During the Pedestrian Culture Period, when men literally stood on an equal footing, class distinctions must have been less marked that in historical times." (Ewers, 1980: 314). "The horse brought wealth, and was a major distinguishing factor between upper and lower class" (Davies). Prior to the arrival of the horse, family possessions were limited to what could physically be carried from camp to camp by the family members and their dogs. This limited individuals' ability to accumulate property. Social status was based on skill in warfare or healing powers rather than wealth. The horse's larger side and greater strength allowed for carrying heavier loads. It has been estimated that a horse could carry approximately eight times the weight a dog could carry. The carrying capacity of the horse allowed individuals to accumulate material goods that indicated wealth to the tribes. "A class system began to develop in which there were rich, middle-class, and poor families, distinguished primarily on the basis of their relative wealth or poverty in horses." (Ewers, 1980: 314). Theodore Stern discussed the relative wealth of the Cayuse by noting "a Cayuse was thought poor who has no more than 15-20 head of horses, and the wealthy might own over 2000." He also indicated that the poor individuals were generally thought of as lazy or uninterested in obtaining wealth (Pg 397). The Oregon tribes were considered among the wealthiest of the horse tribes due to their location west of the Rockies, which helped prevent loss of horses due to raiding. Ewers provided a table showing the comparative data on tribal wealth in horses in 1874 (fig 2) (1980: 28). Though this chart indicates that the Nez Perce seem to have a relatively low number of horse per person at this time, It may be possible that not all the tribes horses were counted. Stan Hoggatt indicated n his website that the Nez Perce had large horse herds. "Louis noted that on their return trip from the pacific in 1806, while staying with the Nez Perce, that the Nez Perce had the largest horse herd on the continent." In 1873 chief Joseph was quoted as saying "The reservation is to small for so many people with all their stock. You can keep your presents; we can go to your towns and pay for what we need; we have plenty of horses and cattle to sell" (Hoggatt, http://www.nezperce.com/npedu13a.html) In 1877, it was noted that the Nez Perce had "cattle herds and horses were spread over a million acres of difficult and rugged terrain." (Hoggatt, http://www.nezperce.com/npedu13-1a.html) The low numbers on this chart could indicate that the Nez Perce kept only a small percentage of their horse population close to the camps for travel and recreation purposes. The remaining herds were possibly dispersed to help protect the wealth status of the individuals.

Horses required different care than the dogs and many new equine skills had to be learned and cultivated. The dog that had been previously adopted by the people was a meat-eating animal and did not require as much special attention as the horse. Horse care techniques, riding and horse handling, and equipment usage became an important part of the people's lives. Horse care included finding areas with suitable forage for the horses to winter over, watching the herds to prevent straying, and breeding practices.

Horses being herbivores required a change in migratory patterns to include locating suitable pasture areas for feeding the horses. In winter when forage could be scarce, alternative forms of feed needed to be located. Horse herds were generally separated into herds based on individual ownership. Young boys were usually chosen to watch over each herd daily. The herds may have been allowed to mix with other individual herds during daytime grazing, but were generally separated and scattered for nighttime grazing. This scattering practice helped prevent loss of large numbers of horses due to raiding. Other methods of confining horses included hobbling, and picketing. Hobbling was used during pasturing horses usually on the lead mare of the herd to help prevent straying. Hobbles were also used when an owner took a horse on a hunting or raiding trip. If an owner had a horse that was especially valuable such as a fine racing horse or a favorite hunting horse, this horse might be picketed in or near camp. (Ewers, 1980: 37-40)

The care of horse ailments also became a new challenge to overcome. These ailments could range from a sore hoof to a broken bone. Wild predatory animals such as wolves or mountain lions could injure the horses. The owners needed to learn how to treat these wounds and illnesses. In some tribes, horse medicine men developed to aid owners in treating the horse?s problems. In the Blackfoot culture, a horse of great value was not routinely killed if it broke a bone. The owner tried to save the life of the horse by splinting the leg or contacting a horse medicine man. (Ewers, 1980: 49-50). Though I could not find any direct evidence that the Oregon Indians practiced treating injuries, Frank Roe discussed a Nez Perce method for obtaining spotted foals in breeding. A Nez Perce named Sam Fisher was a noted horse breeder. "To ensure that all his colts would have spots, and those spots well placed, Sam fisher used a powerful medicine known to some of the Nez Perce horsemen" (Roe, 1974:154). In addition, Roe also discussed the castration of horses and noted, "The Flatheads followed the Spanish technique, as very possibly other tribes also may have done, through the influence of dispersion" (Roe, 1974:258). It has been noted that individual Nez Perce could have spent sometimes years in the company of the Flathead people. Treatment techniques would have easily been passed from the Flathead to the Nez Perce. Several references make significant note of the fine horses that were located in the Nez Perce and even Cayuse camps. Without proper horse care, it is highly unlikely that the people could continue to maintain high quality horses.

Though the tribes maintained permanent winter villages, travel to spring and summer camps occurred for the purpose of gathering food supplies. Horses allowed for both greater mobility and transport of heavier loads. Hunting parties could travel further and both the Nez Perce and the Cayuse began traveling to the Plains for Buffalo hunting that had previously been to great a distance to travel. "After the introduction of the horse, the Nimiipu (Nez Perce) men traveled to the Montana plains to hunt bison and antelope with the Flathead (Sa-likh) People " (Davies). Prior to the arrival of the horse, encirclement traps had been used to hunt deer and elk, using fire and dogs. This practice continued with the horse as a primary driving animal. Fishing from horseback also took place. Horseracing also replaced foot racing as a source of gambling and recreation.

The horse exerted great influence on the social culture of the native people of Oregon by aiding in the creation of social classes. Though the horse was not the direct symbol of wealth, they were the means for an individual or family to increase personal possession holdings. Gambling on horse races was one of the ways an individual could gain or lose wealth and the corresponding social status. Day to day activities were enhanced with the arrival of the horse and made life a little more leisurely by providing transportation for people and possessions. Hunters could travel greater distances and bring home larger quantities of food for their families. The horse also presented the native people with a few new challenges in learning equine husbandry and breeding techniques.

(Fig 1) (Ewers, 1980: 11).

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(Fig 2) (Ewers, 1980: 28).

References:

Davies, Julie

Ethnographic Overview of the Nez Perce Tribe. Electronic document,

http://www.nezpercehorseregistry.co m/history1.pdf, accessed August 19, 2002.

Denhart, Robert M

1975 [1947] The Horse of the Americas. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press.

Ewers, John C

1980 [1955] The Horse in Blackfoot Indian Culture. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institute Press.

Hoggatt, Stan

Appaloosa Horses and Nez Perce Culture. Electronic document, http://www.nezperce.com/npedu13a.html, Accessed August 19, 2002

M-Y Appaloosa Ranch Lapwai, Idaho. Electronic document, http://www.nezperce.com/npedu13-1a.html, Accessed August 19, 2002.

Roe, Frank Gilbert

1974 [1955] The Indian and the Horse. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press.

Stern, Theodore.

1998 Cayuse, Umatilla, and Walla Walla. In Handbook of North American Indians. William C. Sturtevant ed. Pp. 395-419. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institute.

Walker, Deward E. Jr.

1998. Nez Perce. In Handbook of North American Indians. William C. Sturtevant ed. Pp. 420-438. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institute.